Classical Studies 202 (Clas202)
Ancient Roman Society

Table of Contents

• Practise Quizes
• Course Slides
• Event Timeline
• Lecture # I
  1. SOURCES FOR ROMAN SOCIETY
  2. GEOGRAPHICAL BACKGROUND
  3. EARLY ITALY
  4. EARLY ITALY: THE ETRUSCANS
  5. THE MONARCHY (753 - 510 BC)
  6. THE FALL OF THE MONARCHY (510 BC)
• Lecture # II
  1. THE EARLY REPUBLIC (509 - 264 BC)
  2. GOVERNMENT
  3. REPUBLICAN IDEALS
  4. WOMEN
  5. CHILDREN
  6. REPUBLICAN LITERATURE
• Lecture # III
  1. Carthage
  2. The Punic Wars
  3. Social Structure
  4. Slaves and Freedpersons
  5. Marriage
  6. Agriculture
• Lecture # IV
  1. The Late Republic (146-44 BCE)
     1. Tiberius Gracchus
     2. Gaius Gracchus
     3. Gauis Marius
     4. Marius & Sulla
     5. The 1st Triumvirate
     6. Julius Caesar
     7. Crasus
  2. Dress & Hair Styles
  3. Citizenship
  4. Patrons & Clients
  5. Education
  6. Roman Law
  7. Early Pagan Religion
  8. Test Review
• Lecture # V
  • The Death of Julius Caesar
  • The Rise of Octavian Caesar
  • Octavian in Rome, 43 BC
  • 2nd Triumvirate (43 BC)
  • Cleopatra VII
  • The End of the 2nd Triumvirate
  • The Octavian’s Political Options
  • The Principate
  • The 4 Pillars of the Principate
• Lecture # VI
  • The Julio-Claudian Emperors (14 AD -68AD)
  • Tiberius
  • Caligula
  • Claudius
  • Nero
  • Roman Recreation
  • Roman Dining
  • Roman Death & Burial
  • Gladiators
• Lecture # VII
  • The Flavian Emperors
  • Provincial Administration
  • Philosophy
  • Music
• Lecture # VIII
  • THE "FIVE GOOD EMPERORS"
  • THE SEVERAN DYNASTY
  • MEDICINE
  • TECHNOLOGY
  • OCCUPATIONS
  • COMMUNICATIONS
• Lecture # IX
  • IMPERIAL LITERATURE
  • THE CALENDAR
  • THE IMPERIAL CULT
• Lecture # X
  • MYSTERY RELIGIONS
  • CHRISTIANITY
  • IMPERIAL ART & ARCHITECTURE
  • LIFE AT ROME
  • FINANCE
• Lecture # XI
  • ROMAN SEXUAL LIFE
  • ROMAN IMPERIALISM
  • THE ROMAN ARMY & NAVY
  • FILM
• Lecture # XII
  • The Late Empire: The Decline & Fall of Rome
  • The "Barracks Emperors"
  • The Tetrarchy of Diocletian
  • Constantine & Theodosius
  • The Barbarian Migrations
  • Did Rome "Fall"?
  • The Roman Legacy

Practise Quizes

Below are a list of practise quizes designed to help you learn definitions. Each quiz randomly selects a question from a pre-defined list on that topic. You are shown the defintion and asked to write the term it corresponds to.

Answers are case in-sensitive, don't worry. The application that powers the quizes is called Quizify, and was made by a fellow UWaterloo student Michael Fagan.

1. Copy a URL from the list below
   
2. Go to http://faganm.com/quizify/
3. Paste the URL into the small text input box (the top one)
4. Click "Quizify this!"

• Definition URLs

  Test #2 Questions

  http://www.terrill.ca/courses/clas202/definitions2.html

  Gladiators

  http://www.terrill.ca/courses/clas202/gladiators.html

  Housing Terms

  http://www.terrill.ca/courses/clas202/housing.html

  Military Terms

  http://www.terrill.ca/courses/clas202/military.html

  Fiscal Amounts

  http://www.terrill.ca/courses/clas202/fiscal.html

  Literature

  http://www.terrill.ca/courses/clas202/literature.html

  Test #3 Questions

  http://www.terrill.ca/courses/clas202/test.html

Important Timeline of Events

Lecture I

• SOURCES FOR ROMAN SOCIETY HISTORY
  • Literature
    • on papyrus paper (e.g. in Egypt and Herculaneum)
    • on parchment paper(e.g. Dead Sea Scrolls)
    • or recopied by monks in the Middle Ages
    • Includes historians, philosophers, geographers, poets, politician’s speeches, letters, biographies, and encyclopaedias
  • Art and Artifacts (Physical Findings)
    • Sculpture
    • Painting
    • Architecture
    • Daily Life
  • Inscriptions
    • on stone or metal
    • Graffiti (graffito = a message scratched or painted on a wall)
  • Graffiti from Pompeii
    • POLITICAL
      • "I ask you to elect Marcus Cerrinius Vatia to the aedileship. All the late drinkers support him. Florus and Fructus wrote this."
      • "The goldsmiths unanimously urge the election of Gaius Cuspius Pansa as aedile."
      • "The petty thieves support Vatia for the aedileship."
    • LOVE: "The weaver Successus loves the innkeeper's slave girl, Iris by name." "I write at Love's dictation and Cupid's instruction; But damn it! I don't want to be a god without you."
    • BUSINESS: "[A prostitute's sign] I am yours for 2 asses(dollars) cash."
    • DEEP THOUGHTS : "I wonder, O wall, that you have not fallen in ruins from supporting the stupidities of so many scribblers."
  • Coins
  • Administrative Records on papyrus or wooden tablets
  • Lack of graves

    Inhumation

    Burrial of the dead. People contributed to a mass burial fund to fund the funerals of the poor and slaves.

    cremation

    Burning of the dead. A coin was placed in the mouth of the person, under his or her tongue to pay the mythical ferryman Charon to row him to the land of the dead.

• GEOGRAPHICAL BACKGROUND
  • Roman World = Mediterranean World
    • "Our Sea" Gibraltar to the Dardanelles
    • 7600 km coastline / 90,000sq miles / 4x Greece
    • What is today Italy comprises 1600 km long peninsula
    • Climate control; Sahara Desert
    • Mediterranean triad (grain, olives, grapes)
  • Italian mountain ranges:
    • Alps in the north toward todays Switzerland
    • Apennines down the centre of the Italian Peninsula
  • Major rivers:
    • Po in the north, almost 'cuts' off the peninsula
    • Tiber at Rome (west centre), runs just north of Rome
  • 
  • Celts north of the Po
  • Greeks in southern Italy
  • Latium (the "Latin" plain surrounding Rome)
  • Rome: 7 hills - all east of the Tiber
  • Wattle and Daub houses (twigs covered with mud)
  • Capitoline Hill: one of the most famous, and tallest hills of Rome. stronghold)
• EARLY ITALY (1000-750 BC)
  • PEOPLE

    Urnfield Culture

    Named after the practise of creamating their dead, and putting the ashes in Urns.

    Villanovans

    about 1000-750 BC

    Palatine

    The center hill of Rome's 7 Hills. Each hill is a villiage

    Fossa People

    buried their dead in trenches)

    Magna Graecia

    southern Italy settled by Greeks

    Etruscans

    Lived in norther west Etruria (Italy). Used an unknown language. Excellent town planners

  • THE ETRUSCANS 900/800 BC
    • 
    • Etruscan League (12 tribes = 12 cities)
    • Mudbrick houses, but well planned villiages
    • Burial in decorated tombs arranged in "streets" (necropolis)
    • Bucchero (Etruscan black pottery)
    • Final metal workers and craftsmen in terra cotta
    • Juppiter, Juno, Minerva: AKA "Capitoline Triad". Honoured in temples built on Capitolia Hill
    • 550 BC Expansion into Campania : beginning of Hellenistic phase
    • Emperor Claudius (last Etruscan speaker)
• THE ETRUSCAN MONARCHY (753 - 510 BC)

  Aeneas

  was a trojan hero from Troy, lead to the founding of the location that became Rome

  Alba Longa

  Chief city on Latian Plain

  Romulus & Remus

  Two brothers, legendary founders of Rome. Legend has it they were raised by a shewolf

  "She-wolf"

  A sculpture of a female wolf. Many derivatives sculptures were made off this theme. There is likely not a known 'first' sculpture of influence, but rather the legend.

  Rape of the Sabine

  Another sculpture showing men carrying away a sabine woman

  "Pomoerium"

  The sacred boundary of the city of Rome, citizenship didn't exits outside this wall

  "Rex"

  (King of rome)

  Lictors

  attendans of Kings, later became magistrates

  Fasces

  bundles of rods and axes (Symbolic), carried by Lictors

  Triumph

  (victory parade)

  Patricians

  (social upper class order) 10 – 20%

  Plebeians or plebs

  (social lower class orders) 80 – 90%

  gentes

  (singular: gens) (clans)

  Curiate Assembly

  (10 x 3 = 30 curiae)

  centuries

  (units of 100 men)

  Centuriate Assembly

  (18 cavalry + 80 first class + 90 other)

  Servius Tullius

  (578 – 535 BC):

  Ostia

  (port on the mouth of the Tiber River)

  • political reforms wall around Rome / class system by wealth
  • census
• THE FALL OF THE MONARCHY (510 BC)
  • Tarquinius Superbus ("the arrogant")
  • Lucretia, Brutus
  • Establishment of the Res Publica (Republic of Rome)

Day II

• THE EARLY REPUBLIC (509 - 264 BC)
  • THE FOUNDING OF THE CITY (753 BC == 244 a.u.c)
    • 510/509 BC expulsion of Etruscan Kings
    • The etruscan kings and military were at a weak point. Romes capitalized
    • Romans date this as 244 a.u.c.(ab urbe condita = "from the foundation of the city") 244 + 509 = 753 BC
    • "res publica" (commonwealth, republic)
    • Consuls (chief magistrates)
    • Dictator - 6 months maximum
  • HORATIUS COCLES ("The One- Eyed")
    • Having one eye was considered lucky or honourable
    • 509 BC the Etruscan king Lars Porsenna of Clusium attacked Rome
    • Horatius defended the Pons Sublicius bridge, and became a legend for fending off etruscans long enough for Rome to organize defences
    • He prayed "Tiberinus, holy father, I pray thee to receive into thy propitious stream these arms and this thy warrior."
  • Definitions

    Tribunes

    representatives of the plebs)

    Plebeian Council

    A council of plebian people. Did not represent all of Rome's people, but did give the commoners a way to pass laws

    Twelve Tables

    450 BC - These tables, writted by 10 Consuls were displayed publicly in a square. This was one of the first times that the laws of a nation had been openly displayed. This shows literacy and organization.

    Latin League

    493 BC - A confederation of about 30 villiages (who spoke latin) on the now Italian peninsula. This was result of Rome's Divide and Conquer algorithm that they had started to run on the area.

    "Divide & Conquer"

    When two groups got in a fight, Rome would "Moderate" the fight, by siding with one of the factions, and destroying the other. It had many short term friendship, and there are cases where rome tried to incite war just so they could conquer one of the two sides.

    Veii

    480 – 396 BC. An Etruscan city north of Rome on southern border of Etruria that was very wealthy.

    Ager Publicus

    Public Land. Rome tried to make sure no one person owned too much land.

  • The Sack of Rome
    • Gauls are tall, and blonde or red-haired (woad dipped!)
    • Many huge, migratory tribes in France
    • Very aggressive footsoldiers, cavalry and charioteers
    • Heroic warfare still important
    • Fanatics would fight naked!
    • 390/387 sack Rome lead by Brennus
    • "Vae Victis" : "Woe to the Vanquished" was said by Brennus after Rome pays him and the Gauls off, to get them to leave
    • Capitol (citadel on Capitoline Hill) never gets taken by the Gauls. It is defended very well
  • Rome Expands
    • "Servian" Wall (really dates to 380's, not Servius Tullius)
    • ager publicus ( land belonging to the state)
    • colonies (veteran settlement in captured territories)
    • Samnite Wars (343 - 290 BC)
    • 321 BC Caudine Forks : "Pass Beneath the Yolk"
    • Via Appia : fortified road from Rome to Campania via Latium
  • The Samnites
    • Herdsmen, who live in the hills east and south of Rome
    • Mobile experts at mountain and rough ground fighting & skirmishing
    • Culturally they were a step up from the Gauls, but down from the Romans
    • Huge families threaten to swamp Italy, and started 'overflowing' the hills they live in.
    • Romans initially lost a large battle with them, which prompted Rome to build a great highway from southerh to northern Italy. They used this highway to move troops very efficiently.
    • By 290 Rome defeats them, and dominates most of central and northern Italy
  • The Pyrrhic Wars
    • Tarentum - The "Heal" of Italy, and the most powerful of the Greek city states in the south.
    • King Pyrrhus of Epirus (cousin of Alexander the Great) decides to help Tarentum.
    • 280 – 275 BC Pyrrhic Wars
    • Used a war technique called "Phalanx" or "Wall of spears", as well as Battle Elephants
    • 264 BC Rome is "Domina" of central and southern Italy
• GOVERNMENT
  • S.P.Q.R. (The Senate and Roman People)
  • Senate (aristocratic, 300 -> 600 members)
    • major legislation
    • foreign policy
    • senatus consultum (decree of the Senate)
  • Popular Assemblies
    1. Curiate (30 curias): - approve adoptions, wills
       • bestow power on senior magistrates
    2. Centuriate (193 centuries): based on wealth and military potential
       • 80 votes for rich aristocrats
       • 18 votes for Equestrians
       • rest for lesser propertied and poorer citizens
       • no vote for the Proletariat
       • rich can always outvote the poor
       • elect senior magistrates (Consuls, Censors and Praetors)
       • declare war
       • capital appeals court
    3. Tribal (20 > 35 tribes): -4 in Rome and 31 in country
       • elect lower magistrates(10 Tribunes)
       • all socio-economic classes together
       • legislation
       • non-capital appeals court
  • Government Officials
    • Plebeian Council (471 BC)
      • plebiscite (decision of the plebs) = law, 287 BC
    • Magistrates:
      • cursus honorum (senatorial career pattern)
      • quaestor (20) - financial, incl. provincial treasurer
      • aediles (4) - in charge of streets, markets, festivals, public works
      • praetor (8) – in charge of public law courts or governor
      • consul (2) - chief magistrate
    • proconsul, propraetor (magistrate serving in province, whose power is extended an extra year)
    • censor (2, every 5 years) - census, morals
    • tribune (10)
      • represent plebs
      • sacrosanctity
      • veto
    • dictator (1) - only in emergency (for 6 months max.)
    • lictors - carry fasces
  • POLITICAL STRUCTURE "cursus honoum"

    
            (1) Dictator       (2) Censor
                      \       / 
                    (2) Consul
                         |
                    (8) Praetor
                    /         \	
            (2) Plebian        (2) Curule
                   |                   |
           (10) Tribune       (20) Quaestor
                   |                   |
         Plebians (Commoners)     Patricians or Plebians
    				

• REPUBLICAN IDEALS

  mos maiorum

  ancestral customs

  gravitas

  seriousness

  pietas

  respect for authority to the gods, state and family

  religio

  being "bound" to the gods

  virtus

  manliness, courage

  fides

  loyalty, faithfulness, honesty, integrity

  simplicitas

  plain lifestyle

  clementia

  calculated mercy

  frugalitas

  frugality

  familia

  family

  paterfamilias

  male head of the family

  patria potestas

  authority of the paterfamilias

  genius

  protective spirit

  matrona

  wife of the paterfamilias

• WOMEN
  • Most of our evidence and historical record is biased. Being written by men and for men.
  • Role of women:
    • biological (childbirth, sex)
    • economic (dowry, household management, labour, wool-working)
    • supervise slaves, children
  • high moral standard expected (otherwise could be killed)
  • little involvement in public life (service to emperor or deity)
  • demonstration against Oppian Law on luxury (195 BC)
  • Noteable Women

    Cornelia

    mother of the Gracchi

    Laelia, Hortensia

    orators

    Iaia of Cyzicus

    painter

    Theophila

    philosopher-poet, compared with Sappho

    Hypatia

    philosopher-mathematician

    Demo

    commentator on Homer

  • Criticism of women: Juvenal's 6th satire
  • Praise of women: Quintilian; eulogy of Turia
  • legal dependency: male control (father, husband, guardian) incl. exposure, arranged marriages<
  • There were many double standards when it came to adultery, and citizenship. What was often illegal for females was legal for males.
  • home bodies, or party animals? e.g. Livy vs. Ovid; Sabine women;
  • Lucretia; Good Goddess; Papirius; poison mystery (331 BC)
  • women in work force (for a woman to have a job was considered low class, however they did hold many jobs)
  • Women demonstrated against Oppian Law on Luxury in 195
• CHILDREN
  • (sources: Pliny the Elder, Lucretius, Soranus, Quintilian, Martial, Cicero, Plutarch)
  • Augustus' legislation to encourage children
    • Person with most kids has seniority
    • Widow must re-marry in a year
    • Must engage to someone old enough to marry
  • use of contraceptives
  • strange ideas on mechanics of birth
  • miscarriages
  • abortion (e.g. Domitian's niece)
  • exposure by paterfamilias
  • adoption
  • 3 days to claim child, 8 to name it
  • Paterfamilias could expose (kill) child
  • size of families (e.g. Germanicus, Marcus Aurelius)
  • illegitimate children
  • treatment of children
  • alimenta (relief scheme for farmers and needy children)
• REPUBLICAN LITERATURE
  • no Latin literature until 3rd c. BC
  • "Captive Greece captured her rude conqueror" (Horace)
  • 3rd century.: Livius Andronicus (translated Homer's Odyssey; plays) No literature until now
  • 2nd century.: Ennius (Annals = Roman history in verse; plays)

  • Polybius

    a Greek (prose History of Rome from experience)

    Plautus

    slapstick comedies, set in Greece, a real jackass

    Terence

    psychological comedies; plagiarized, somewhat like robin williams style today

    Cato

    "father of Latin prose" (technical subjects), Disliked aristocrats

    Lucilius

    satire, the only lit. form invented by Romans. Satire is the only roman invented literature

  • GOLDEN AGE (1st century). Pretty much the best, most polished literature of the Roman erra

    Lucretius

    philosophical poetry = Epicurean

    Catullus

    Alexandrian school of lyric poetry; Lesbia poems. Lesbia was this girl he was infatuated with, she rejected him, and he became infuriated with her

    Cicero

    speeches; philosophical dialogues; letters to Atticus

    Caesar

    historical commentaries on Gallic and civil wars. When he was in the north fighting, before he became emporer, he would send back reports that included great tales of herroic nature, where he was the main character.

    Sallust

    histories of Jugurthine war, Catiline’s conspiracy. Reformer, democrat, write about corruption.

  • THE LYRIC POETRY OF GAIUS VALERIUS CATULLUS

    "Julius Caesar, you’re a snot,
    I don’t care if you like it or not.
    Maybe you’re good luck, maybe you’re bad,
    I don’t care, now go on, and be mad."
    

    "My Lesbia, let us live and let us love
    And not care two cents for old men
    Who sermonise and disapprove.
    Suns when they sink can rise again,
    But we, when our brief light has shone,
    Must sleep the long night on and on.
    Kiss me: a thousand kisses, then
    A hundred more, and now a second
    Thousand and hundred, and now still
    Hundreds and thousands more, until
    The thousands thousands can’t be counted
    And we’ve lost track of the amount
    And nobody can work us ill
    With the evil eye by keeping count."
    

    "She swears she’d rather marry me
    Than anyone – even Jupiter,
    Supposing he were courting here.
    She swears; but what a girl will swear
    To the man who loves her ought to be
    Scribbled on water, scrawled on air."

    "Lesbia spits all day against my name,
    And yet I’ll stake my life she loves me.
    Why?
    I curse her all the time – I’ve just the same symptoms
    If I don’t love her, let me die."

    "How do you, girl with the outsize nose,
    Colourless eyes, stub fingers, ugly toes,
    Coarse conversation and lips none too dry,
    Friend of the bankrupt man from Formiae.
    Are you the lady whom Cisapline Gaul
    Ranks with my Lesbia and dares to call
    Beautiful? O provincial generation –
    No taste, no culture, no imagination!"

    "Rufus, it’s no matter for surprise
    That no girl offers you her tender thighs,
    Not even though you work at undermining
    Virtue with gifts of rare silks and clear-shining,
    Mouth-watering stones. An ugly rumour harms
    Your reputation. Underneath your arms
    They say you keep a fierce goat which alarms
    All comers – and no wonder, for the least
    Beauty would never bed with that rank beast.
    So either kill the pest that makes the stink
    Or else stop wondering why the women shrink."
    

DAY III

• Carthage (North Africa)
  • (near Tunis): maritime empire. Did everything with profit in mind
  • Worship old Semitic gods, ie Tanit, Melqart and Ba’al
  • Sacrifice children in times of distress
  • Small citizen population
  • Freely intermarried with local population
  • Large mercenary army, powerful navy
  • The Founding of Carthage
    • The Legendary Queen Dido of Tyre founded Carthage in 814BCE
    • Named Kart-hadasht (Carthage) meaning "New City"
  • It rivaled Romes power in the mediterranian from the 3rd to 2nd to 1st Century BC. Eventually this lead to Rome declaring war - the Punic Wars ensued.
• THE PUNIC WARS
  • In the Middle Republic (264-146 BC)
  • ("Punic" = Carthaginian or Phoenician)
  • 1st Punic War (264-241 BCE) SICILY
    • Sicily divided between the Kingdom of Syracuse, Carthaginian trading cities, and independent Greek cities
    • Mamertine ("sons of Mars") take city of Messana
    • Syracuse attacks (wants city back)
    • Mamertines call for aid to Carthage and Rome
    • Carthage arrives to help Mamertines, and then just keep going and take the city
    • Mamertines call on Rome (as fellow Italians!) to get rid of Carthaginians
    • Syracuse and Carthage declare war on Rome
    • Syracuse then makes a separate peace treaty
    • Carthage is left on their own. Carthage is a naval power, Rome is a land power. Cicily is the common ground they fight over.
    • Rome justifies the war as "helping people" from the north africans
    • Rome doesn’t want carthaginians with a foot hold so close to their area
    • Sicily: intervention of Rome and Carthage(264 – 241 BC)
    • Carthage (a sea power) is now at war with Rome (a land power) and they keep destroying Romes warships.
    • Rome captures one of their ships, copy it, and then mass produce it but still lose
    • The Corvus ("Raven"), rome’s attempt to turn naval battels into land battles. Ships have a walkway that they use to board Carthaginian ships, and kill them.
    • 255 BC Regulus' expedition. This is Rome’s attempt to finish things. Carthage hires the ‘spartans’ to train them. Use war elephants to trample roman invasion. Regulus is captured and executed by Carthaginians. Put in a barrel with spikes and rolled down a hill
    • 241 Peace Treaty
      • Carthage gives Rome a War indemnity of 3,200 Talents of Silver over 10 years (1 Talent = 60 pounds), which was easy because Carthage has money.
      • Carthage must also give them Sardinia, Sicily and Corsica: annexed by Rome (Rome becomes an Empire!)
  • 2nd Punic War (219-201 BCE) NORTHERN ITALY against HANNIBAL
    • Hamilcar Barca ("thunderbolt")
      • 248-241 Supreme Commander in Sicily
      • 236 sent to build Spanish empire
    • 221 BC Hannibal Barca, son of Hamilcar becomes general of Spain
      • brilliant tactician in Punic Wars
      • loved by his soldiers, he marched with the soldiers
      • oath to never be a friend to Rome. His job was to increase Carthages power by exploiting the wealth of Spain.
    • 219 BC siege of Saguntum: River becomes boundary between Roman and Carthaginian refernce, but then make a friendship with Saguntum on the other side.
    • 218 BC crosses the Alps (35,000 infantry, 6,000 cavalry and 60 elephants vs 700,000 Romans)
      • Attempt to cross alps to invade Rome.
      • Carve a road out, and surprise Rome
      • Not going to destroy Rome, instead he is trying to inflict enough damage to break city states away from the empire. Doesn’t work.
      • Half survive the journey
    • 218 BC Battles at Ticinus and Trebia (Roman minor defeats): Hanibal defeats one army.
    • 217 BC Battle of Lake Trasimene (40,000 Romans killed)
      • Hanibal knows Romans want to fight. Romans follow a lure along the road, while Hanibal has people hiding along the sides.
      • Drove the romans into the lake, killed most of them.
      • Gauls join up with Cartheginians. Most of the Cartheginian casualties are gauls.
      • Some northern scity states join them also.
      • The north opens up a bit.
    • Rome Panics
      • Two quick victories open northern Italy to invasion (armies gone & leaders killed!)
      • Attributed to "Punic Treachery!"
      • Gauls and some northern Italian cities join Hannibal
      • Some southern Italian Greek cities join Hannibal as well
      • Rome builds a massive army and decides to wipe out Hannibal once and for all!
    • 216 BC Battle of Cannae
      • major Roman defeat (30 – 60,000Romans killed)
      • Hanibal outnumbered 2-1.
      • Romans find a flat open plane to fight like they normally do
      • Hanibal distracts them in the center, while the cartheginian calvary circles around them. Romans funnel in, Calvary surrounds them.
      • Countless casualties
      • Rome losses a very large army. Rome looks for a new General who will learn from this.
      • Results of Cannae
        • 216 BC Philip V of Macedon declares war on Rome and allies to Hannibal
        • Rome appoints Scipio (nicknamed Africanus for his victory over Carthage)as Commander
    • The Tide Turns
      • Scipio defeats Carthaginian armies in Spain
      • Hannibal gets supplies from Spain. But he is choked off from early in the war, so he is bottled up.
      • Hannibal trapped in southern Italy. Doesn’t have enough people to take Rome. Doesn’t have siege equipment.
      • He spends 14 years in Rome, most of the work is in vain.
      • Hasdrubal (Hannibal's brother)
      • Zama (202 BC): major Carthaginian defeat
      • 201 Peace Treaty
        • war indemnity – Carthage must pay 10,000 Talents over 50 years
        • Rome takes over /annexs Spain
      • In 203 Hannibal is called out of Italy.
  • The 3rd Punic War (149-146 BCE) NORTH AFRICA
    • A series of small wars
    • Macedonia (north of Greece): defeated by Rome & her allies
    • Numidians (north africa - hostile neighbours of Carthage): become allies of Rome, not Carthaginians. Strip Carthage down to a narrow strip of land
    • Numidians attack Carthage, Carthage fights back and Rome sides with Numidians
    • Cato goes to Carthage, finds the city in good working order, comes back and ends every speech he makes with: "Carthage must be destroyed!"
    • Rome kills every man, slavery for women and children. Knock down city and plow soil with salt so that nothing will ever grow again.
    • Ironically Rome comes back to this place later and rebuilds it.
• ROMAN SOCIAL STRUCTURE
  • TWO CLASSES

    patricians

    aristocracy, upper social order
    10% of population
    honestiores (self referred to as the "more honourable" upper class.

    plebeians

    (plebs)commoners, lower social order
    90% of population
    humiliores (the lower class)

    gentes

    AKA (gens) (clans)
    Pedigree for office
    Somewhat unofficial, much lower class

  • ROMAN UPPER CLASS

    Senatorials

    AKA (governing body of Republican Rome)
    -Patrician families in the senate.
    -nobiles (nobility, patrician, senatorial class)
    -Senator has a wealth of about : 1 million sesterces

    Equites

    AKA (equestrians)
    -Smart in business and made money
    -rich plebeians (cavalry, business class)
    -Often marry Senatorials to get the name, they provide the money. "help out the other family"
    -400,000 sesterces

    novus homo

    ("new man", without consular ancestors)
    First in a family to become a ‘consul’

    cursus honorum

    (career ladder, sequence of public offices)

    publicani

    (state contractors, from equestrian class)
    -An office, not a social class
    -Tax collectors, bad reputation
    -You can become wealthy by being one of these. Collect for senators. If you collect above and beyond that is required you can keep it.

    procurators, prefects

    (senior equestrian appointments)
    -Help governor run the province

  • SLAVES AND FREEDPERSONS
    • differences between ancient and modern concepts of slavery
    • You could be freed from your slavery then
    • Salves were valuable property, why abuse it?
    • prisoners of war: cheap slaves make latifundia (plantations) possible
    • Slaves would be used for their talents, not just for animal labour.
    • servus (slave) = manpower, status symbol, wealth (chattels)
    • Acquiring slaves: purchase from a slave market; when you buy your get a ‘bill of sale’, defects were noted on this bill, dealers were dishonest (used car salesman style).
    • vernae (slaves born on the master's estate)
    • loan/rental of slaves was common, e.g. wet-nurses
• Slaves
  • General Information
    • slave can't be soldier, except in dire emergency, e.g. Cannae
    • job specialization (esp. Greek)
    • Greek slaves educated (physicians, tutors)
    • slave foreman runs rural estate for absentee master
    • master's powers of punishment unlimited
      • By law owners had all the rights
      • Again, if you harm the slave it isn’t in your economic best interest
    • ergastula (prison barracks where slave were locked up)
      • Prison for slaves who ran away
      Charged with stealing (you can’t steal yourself)
    • distrust of slaves:
      • evidence under torture
      • masters murdered (only believe them if they were being tortured during interogation)
    • revolts:
      • Sicily (135 BC),
      • Spartacus (73 BC) Escape, but change their mind, crucified with the last 6,000 slaves. A warning to everyone else.
    • Various laws were passed to curb abuses by Claudius, Vespasian, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius
      • Ex: if you abandon sick slaves and they live, they are free
    • Pliny's enlightened treatment of his slaves
      • Let them have wills, property, keep their children
    • training and wealth of some slaves
    • privileges: peculium (slave's savings)
    • contubernium (cohabitation with a fellow slave)
      • Common law marriages for slaves
  • Jobs
    • agricultural (e.g. on latifundia)
    • industrial (manufacturing)
    • unskilled (mines, quarries, construction, docks, galleys)
    • [good] domestic (household slaves: easier life, chance of freedom)
    • [good] clerical/administrative (civil service)
    • gladiator (punishment for runaway/criminal slave) Big paycheck if you lived, possiblity of celebrity status. Possibility to buy freedom
  • Manumission of Slaves (setting a slave free)
    • for long or exceptional service
    • for saving master's life
    • in exchange for peculium (money)
    • Augustus limits number of slaves that can be manumitted
      • You can only free 100 slaves at a time
      • Afraid of social order if a lot of slaves are freed
    • Methods of being freed:
      • by the rod (before praetor or governor)
      • by testament (a document from owner)
      • informal (don't get Roman citizenship but become "Junian" Latins "go away")
    • libertus (freedperson, ex-slave, NOTE: not a roman citized)
    • However, your kid canbea roman citizen
    • freed slave becomes client of former master
      • owes him several days' service each year
      • in return owner protects in law courts etc.
    • libertus: can't hold public office (but sons can)
    • can't marry into senatorial class
    • collegia (burial/social clubs) joined by slaves, freedpersons
• Roman Marriage
  • arranged marriages (matchmakers, e.g. friends, orators)
  • criteria for choosing a spouse: wealth, influence, fertility, status
  • Legally married could:
    • Heir
    • Adopt
  • forbidden matches:
    • -senator/lower class
    • -Roman/foreigner
    • -free person/slave (if you did, you become a slave)
    • -soldiers (can’t be distracted) Women followed the army, get stranded in a foreign country and end up marrying out of neccessity
  • contubernium (cohabitation; marital union not recognized by law)
  • No legal status, but acknowledged as being together
  • Republic: father's consent only; later: father's + children's consent
  • minimum age: 14 (boys), 12 (girls)
  • betrothal: minimum age gradually raised to 10
  • Gifts (for bride, and her family), agreement (formal legal document), dowry (to grooms family), iron rings (origin of wedding ring), party (celebrating)
  • calendar restrictions - Second half of June was considerred good
  • wedding (civil): dress of bride and groom.
    • Long white dress
    • Red shoes
    • Ornate hair
    • decoration of house
    • contract, sacrifice, reception, procession to new home (of the groom)
    • threshold ceremony (offering made to God Janus)
    • wedding (religious, with cakes. Exchanged cakes): hard to annul (but possible), unpopular
    • dowry: recoverable on divorce (romans were big on debts. 30 days to repay the debt, or locked up)
  • Ending a marriage
    • manus (husband's legal control over wife, and property, represent in court)
    • changing attitudes (originally "one-man woman" vs. frequent divorce)
    • grounds for divorce: originally, only adultery; later, any reason
    • remarriage (not necessarily for love (must remarry in a year at one point))
    • divorce especially common among upper class (trade up politically)
    • child custody: father (legally at least)
    • punishments for adultery: death, exile, partial loss of dowry
• Agriculture
  • farming manuals:
    • Cato (2nd c. BC)
    • Varro (1st c. BC)
    • Columella (1st c. AD)
    • Palladius (4th c. AD)
    • Vergil, Georgics (1st c. BC)
  • Farming Techniques
    • terracing crops
    • rotation of crops to preserve soil
    • fertilizer
    • intercultivation (planting cereals between rows of trees),
    • draining & irrigation (aquaducts)
    • farm animals transhumance (move animals around to preserve grassland)
  • Farming Equipment
    • ard (early plough -- scratched surface only)
    • sickle, scythe, flail
    • amphora (clay shipping container) potentially very large
  • Definitions

  ager publicus

  ("common" land, owned by the state)

  latifundia

  (sing. latifundium) (plantations, large estates)

  coloni

  (tenant farmers) old soldiers were given land after duty. Often in north africda.

  villa

  (estate owner's residence and outbuildings)
  includes"urbane", "rustic", and utility areas

  Mediterranean triad

  (wheat, olives, grapes). Wheat Olives and Grapes were the 3 elements of production. Olives seem odd, but Wheat = bread, and Grapes = wine, which was safer to drink than water

  Wine

  was a big export (even healthier than water)

DAY IV

• THE LATE REPUBLIC (146-27 BC)
  • Problems caused by long series of wars
    • decline in the number of citizen/soldier/farmers
    • creation of Latifundia(really large plantations or country estates) in opposition to the Licinian-Sextian Law (that farms couldnt be too large) of 367 BC
    • "The Mob" - a group of ex-soldiers who became homeless, or poor from being at war so long. Became political enforcers, to the party that was nice to them
    • rise of the Equestrians and their struggle for power with the Patricians
      • The equestrians made weapons, and made a lot of money.
      • They invest in things. Loot conquered lands
      • Become more wealthy than senators, power struggle ensues
    • Patrician Governors of new provinces often corrupt
    • publicani/tax-farming
      • tax collectors (used by governors)
      • Governors are only there for a year, and attempt to scam for 3 fortunes. 1 fortune for a lawyer, 1 for bribes, and a third to retire on.
    • a city-state government struggling to rule an "empire". Not enough wisdom, experience to govern everything
    • Two parties
      • Populares - politicians who appeal to the regular people
      • Optimates - appeal to the old order influentials
    • Rome is a great empire and people start fighting internally for status
    • Long series of war creates problems.
      • Soldiers are farmers.
      • Long war, sometimes years. Soldiers go into debt to keep the farms going
      • Some farmers go bankrupt, begin selling them off
      • Some guys lost land, and are homeless. They all go to ROME, become the MOB. The mob becomes a politcal entity. Politicians become tools of political parties. If theyre happy, they support you. If not, they riot.
      • Welfare is introduced
  • Tiberius Gracchus
    • Tiberius Gracchus (162-133 BC)
      • Plebeian
      • Tribune of the People 133 BC
      • latifundia
      • ager publicus
      • revise Licinian-Sextian Law (500 acres for you vs 320 + 160 for each of two sons)
      • take excess land from senators and give to soldiers so they can server in the army. Rich people dont like it.
    • Tribal Assembly vs Senate (vetoed by Tribune loyal to Senate)
      • Took to Senate(also vetoed)
      • had opposing Tribune removed(illegal) from the Tribal Assembly (illegal)
      • ran for second consecutive term as tribune to save his life and legislation (illegal?), but murdered by the Senate (plus 300 of his followers)
    • His body is tossed in the Tiber river. Rome is using terrorism as enforcement. Uses the MOB
  • Gaius Gracchus
    • Gaius Gracchus(153-121 BC)
      • Plebeian and brother of Tiberius Gracchus
      • elected Tribune 123 BC
      • re-enacted brother's land reforms
      • brought many reforms
      • Wanted to break up the wealth and give back to normal people
    • Equites, not Senators, to judge corrupt Governors
    • proposes to extend Roman citizenship throughout Italy
    • senatus consultum ultimum - sent out by senate. "Final Decree of Senate" that results up with Gaius and his followers killed. Again Rome is using physiical force
  • Gauis Marius(157-86 BC)
    • Equestrian (& Populares (wants support from the people))
      • novus homo - new man. First from family to become consul
      • elected Tribune in 119 BC
      • elected Consul in 107 BC
    • War with Jugurtha of Numidia (111-104 BC) from Morroco (north africa)
      • remodels army(volunteers vs "landed" citizens, better training, equipment, pay, conditions, organization)
      • cohort vs maniple legion
      • He creates new legion arms of 3000 men on decree of Senate to keep them in power. It includes anyone who is physically fit. Not just farmers, it includes the MOB.
      • Gives them better training, standardizes equipment (everyone gets the same stuff)
      • Gives them better pay. Signed up for 25 years, given bonuses. Payed them by looting places they conquered.
      • Note: in the past the soldiers were loyal to state, now to the successful general
    • Defeats Numidians (North Africa), Cimbri and Teutons (southern France)
    • 104-99 BC defeats slave revolt in Sicily and pirates
    • Incredibly successful. He bcomes the dictator (unofficially of course). And becomes arrogant.
  • Marius & Sulla
    • Hero of the Social War (90-88 BC). All Allies in Italy who don't have citizenship of ROME go to war for unfair pay, etc. Results in everyone getting citizenship
    • marius is Made Consul 7 times in 20 years(5 times in a row!). The checks and balances are out of order
    • Lucius Cornelius Sulla "Felix"(138-78 BC)
      • Patrician and colleague of Marius
      • Senate sees someone who can counteract Marius.
    • King Mithridates of Pontus(three wars between 88 and 63 BC)
      • -88 BC granted command against Mithridates
      • -Marius vs Sulla
        • they start killing eachouther and their supporters.
        • Anyone who doesn't support Marius is killed.
        • Sullus defeats Mithridates in the east
        • Marius dies after becoming dictator
        • Sulla comes back, kills everyone who supported Marius
      • -Rostra
      • -The Great Proscription (list of people to kill, made by Sulla. Bigger than Marius's list) Its a blood bath
      • -Sullus is made Consul and Dictator for life (dies a few months later)
  • The 1st Triumvirate
    • Political deadlock & chaos follows the death of Sull
    • Spartacus (73-71 BC) (slave revolt, last 6000 slave soldiers are crucified)
    • Cicero (becomes consul in 63, wants to go back to the good ol days)
    • 1st Triumvirate (60 BC): Crassus, Pompey, Caesar (renewed in 56 BC)
      • Crassus (wealthies in Rome. Has a fire department. No one has insurance. He sets price for service)
      • Pompey (Senate loves him. nicknamed the Great for defeating revolt.)
      • Julius Caesar (People. Aunt married to Marrius. Knew how to work the people. Was once captured by pirates, returned to defeat them later)
    • Caesar in Gaul (59-52 BC). To the north. Makes loyal army, fame in written stories, and money in loot
    • Caesar in Germany and Britain (55-54 BC). People hadn't really been there
  • Julius Caesar
    • Rubicon (49 BC) "Alea iacta est" ("the die is cast"). Border between Gaul and Sicily. He takes the army and invades Italy. People flock to him, he's popular and powerful.
    • The Battle of Pharsalus (48 BC) Caesar is a Populaire party person, fights the Optimate party and wins
    • The Alexandrian (Egypt) War/Cleopatra (48-47 BC). Caesar goes to Egypt in persuit of Pompey. Egyptians kill him. Egypt is in civil war. Caesar decides to side with Cleopatra, and take over Egypt.
      • Cleopatra is very witty, and Caesar falls for her.
      • He needs her to get the wealth of Egypt.
      • Have a child named Cecarian
    • Consul 48, 46 and 45 BC
    • Dictator for 10 years in 46 BC (unprecedented). Reforms a lot of Rome. Does good things. He makes enemies, and they eventually catch up to him.
    • Actually had ceizures in public, because they were thought to be being 'touched by gods'
    • Ides of March (15 Mar. 44 BC) Ides denotes the middle of the month. Caesar was killed on the middle of March in 44 BC. Brutus leads a conspiracy, circle caesar, stab him. (this is the Ides of March)
  • Death of Crasus
    • 55-53BCE goes to war against Parthians
    • Killed in 53 BCE in Battle of Carrhae, army destroyed by Parthians.
    • His head used in a play the next day.
    • When he dies, Pompey and Caesar go at it. Caesar eventually wins.
• Dress & Hair Styles
  • MALE DRESS
    • men's wear: tunic (knee-length woollen shirt, with or without sleeves, tied at waist); could also be worn to bed
    • cold weather: woolen cloak with centre hole and hood (poncho!)
    • note: roman men didn't wear pants If they did wear them, it was capris
    • caps worn only by ex-slaves, but citizens could wear wide sun-hats, males rarely wore them
    • formal dress: toga (woolen wrap, secured by knot) [not that practical, but thats fashion]
    • senators wear broad purple stripe, equestrians a thin one
    • boys also wear a little purple stripe, until reaching manhood (around 16)
    • Only the emperor wears the purple toga; purple expensive, smelly
    • leather shoes with crossed straps (coloured for senators)
    • indoors: slippers; hobnailed army boots (caliga); bath clogs
    • Jewelery: men's rings (gold for elite; silver for Equestrians: also signet rings(signature ring, to seal envelopes))
    • men: orig. long hair and beard;
    • shaving and haircuts start (cant go to war with a long beard)- 3rd c. BC (need barber)
    • beards return in 2nd c. AD, disappear in 4th
    • Sandals had cleats, a practical addition
    • Most people had one or two tunics. One set of clothes. Probably smelled pretty bad
  • WOMEN’S FASHION
    • women's wear (orig. toga): ankle-length dress, long-sleeved tunic. Theycover up a lot
    • stola covered hair(longer more formal garment, belted above waist, worn over tunic)
    • outdoors: cape or mantle; head scarves, coloured shoes, leggings (if very cold)
    • handbag, or slave to carry one
    • underwear: loincloth (optional); breastband (a rope); girdle
    • jewelry: . more common for women than men
    • bulla (child's amulet for good luck)
    • earrings, necklaces, brooches, bracelets etc.
    • wear one or two pieces at a time, not a lot
  • FEMALE HAIR STYLES
    • women: simple at first
    • "Octavia" look (simple bun at back of head)
    • Flavian high coiffure (took a lot of time). It is a fancy way they did hair that is all tall at the front
    • wigs, hair dye, combs, mirrors
    • German and Gallic slaves kept to grow long blonde or re-haired wigs
• Roman Citizenship
  • Used as a carrot. If you do what you want us to, you can become a citizen.
  • cives (citizens, m. or f.)
  • Roman citizen's rights:
    • vote
    • hold public office
    • marry other citizens
    • commerce (property, contracts, inheritance)
    • trial before urban praetor (could take issues to court)
    • appeal criminal case to Rome (appeal things your convicted of)
    • wear toga (status)
    • bear 3 names (middle name = family name)
  • Roman citizen's responsibilities:
    • military service
    • pay special taxes (e.g. inheritance) to fund armies, etc
  • Roman citizenship by:
    • birth (parents = citizens) (most common)
    • manumission (freed slave of citizen. Freed slave is a "Freedman", son can rise the ranks)
    • military service (25 years in auxiliaries)
    • grant from emperor (indiv. Or community)
  • ius Latii ("right of Latium") = Latin ( partial or half) citizenship. Couldn't vote. Some legal and political rights. Still required to serve in the army. Get a cut of the spoils. Couldn't easily marry into a roman family because the roman would lose their status.
  • Emporer Caracalla (attempting to be popular) gives Roman citizenship to all except slaves (AD 212). It backfired, cause no one wanted to join the army to get citizenship. Rome starts to slide off now.
  • non-Romans, non-Latins = peregrines
    • (= provincials after 90 BC)
  • Peregrines:
    • lack all rights of Roman citizens
    • trial by peregrine praetor
    • can be executed, non-romans can be killed.
    • can marry non-citizen
    • can manumit (no citizenship)
• PATRONS AND CLIENTS
  • Interesting Vanity Fair article that goes in depth on this subject
  • (sources: Martial, Juvenal, Pliny the Younger)
  • nature of the patron-client system
  • political use of clients (e.g. Clodius' political gangster. Hitmen would kill the opponents of him.)

  • patrons

    almost 'worshiped' by lesser people. Ex slaves, or poor people flock to these people to support him. Patrons have clients that follow and support them.

    salutatio

    (client's morning greeting to patron. symbol of partons status)

    sportula

    ("little basket": a handout of food or money from Patron to his supporters. little gift bags.)

  • patrons' complaints about parasitic clients (clients are the supporters)
  • clients' complaints: humiliation, shamelessness, double standard
  • so long as a client was in debt to a patron they would show up
  • [extension to the roman family. Freedman (freed slaves) needed to still be part of a family. They become part of their old masters entourage.]
• EDUCATION
  • (sources: Horace, Quintilian, Seneca
  • wealthy went to school, poor learned a trade (ie family business)
  • No formal degree for teachers. So some are good and others bad
  • The pay was bad. Depended on your success, wealth of students. Bribed students to stay so they would get paid.
  • Most women went to school until age 12, then learned how to be a hostess. High level thinking was not as importnat as status. Some broke through this.

  • ludus

    (school for upper class aged 7-12) Lower class did trades.

    paedagogus

    (slave who escorted and tutored children, usually a Greek who was over-educated. Slave allowed to dicipline student)

    grammaticus

    (went at age 12, to get further education) involved memorizing great thoughts and speeches. nothing creative. (grammar teacher)

    Cicero, Vergil, Livy

    (talk about their kids, said students needed to learn latin earlier, rather than Greek [I THINK HE HAD THIS BACKWARDS])

    rhetor

    (teacher of rhetoric)

    Greek

    ("second language" of Roman Empire)

    Athens

    (world's first "university", (80,000 units a year. 400,000 units were needed to be an equestrian.)

    papyrus

    (a type of paper used to show off, made from an Egyptian plant (now extinct))

    volumen

    (scroll: a "book" on rollers)

    palimpsest

    ("recycled" papyrus, with writing erased)

    Alexandria

    (greatest Library) in Egypt. Incredibly think tank. Caesar burned the place down :(

    Varro

    (famous roman teacher). could bring out his student

    Palatine Library

    Rome. Two sections. Texts in Greek and in Latin. Most Romans were bilingual

    Augustus, Trajan, Hadrian

    Partons of universities.

• LAW
  • GENERAL INFORMATION
    • early Rome: paterfamilias said "this is the law" like dad saying "This is the law", king, consul. The problem is that it changed on a whim. No order, or ogainization. The common man didn't have a way to know what the law was.
    • legal sources:
      • Twelve Tables (450 BC). The first legal code publicly available. Everyone can see it, it is for everyone.
      • senatus consultum, plebiscite
      • edicts of magistrates/emperors
      • legal textbooks: Institutes (Gaius tried to collect the laws, 2nd c.),
      • Theodosian Code (4th c.) tried to put all the legal codes and laws (1100 years of laws)
      • Digest (Justinian, 6th c.) Corpus Iuris Civilis, or Justinian’s Code. Puts all the emporers pronouncements in it. One book for lawyers. One for precidents in history. One book with updated laws, stripped of all the old garbage(likely half the size).
      • Justinian Code: Grant each man his rights, each must live honestly, and ____ something else.
    • kinds of law:
      • -public: state/citizen
      • -civil (private): citizen/citizen
      • -law of nations: citizen/foreigner [provinces used to have their old legal system. If the law of rome and old laws conflict, you favour the old laws because they are used to it]

    • praetors

      (judicial magistrates): urban (citizens)

      peregrine praetors(

      foreigners. Ex: expert in Engyptian law)

      provincial governor

      circuit court (courts come to you); edicts (changes that needed to made locally)

      consilium principis

      (emperor's council) = legal experts who advise the emperor on interpretation of laws

  • CIVIL LAW
    • Cicero "The Spirit of the Law versus the Letter of the Law"
      • - If you hit someone your guilt of assault, but if he hits you first it is self defence
    • "police":
      • none at first (even with 1,000,000 people)
      • Augustus: 3 urban cohorts (1000 men each) under City Prefect (senator)
    • civil case: - preliminary hearing before praetor (case is usually settled in a day, or even less)
      • trial by judge
      • in minor cases, out-of-court settlement by arbiter
      • 30 days to pay penalty (but could appeal)
  • ROMAN CRIMINAL LAW
    • criminal case:
      • originally heard by Centuriate/Tribal Assembly
      • trial by jury (chaired by praetor)
      • jury selected from pool ("college" of senators or equestrians)
      • Majority rule, not un-animous
      • commoners didn't have a jury of their peers.
      • 'People of better class deserved a bigger break'
      • senatorial vs. equestrian
      • arraignment before praetor (trial date set)
      • jury selection
      • witnesses
      • time limits (a day to make your case)
      • Slaves had to be tortured to be believed
  • ROMAN LAW: LAWYERS & PUNISHMENTS
    • lawyers:
      • originally non-professional (patron/friend)
      • eventually they went to professional lawyers
      • fee limited to 10,000 sesterces (1st c. AD)
      • courtroom tricks (lawyers had a lot of slack in the courtroom to maneuver)
      • At any time during court case the defendant can just put himself into exile and leave rome
    • punishments:
      • change over time
      • value of damages decided by assessor
      • enslavement for debt abolished in 4th c. BC
      • death penalty and imprisonment: abolished in 190's BC (for roman citizens only)
      • "capital punishment" = exile, loss of property
      • lesser penalties: fines, loss of citizenship
      • jail: not a punishment; holding cells only
      • different punishments for honestiores and humiliores
      • EX: slander/lying : clubbed to death
      • EX: judge who took bribe : judge put to death
      • EX: looted a temple : sent to colliseum to fight animals
• EARLY PAGAN RELIGION
  • EARLY ROMAN PAGAN RELIGION
    • much based on Etruscan models. Simple people close to the soil. Taken very seriously.
    • gods begin as spirits
    • numen (divine power) term for devine power, everthing has a life force in it. We need to be in touch with the life force
    • later, Anthropromorphism. identification of devine force with Greek gods e.g. Vulcan (fire/blacksmith), Neptune (water), Mars (spear/war)
    • numen starts being attached to gods, groups of people, emperor, family genius (spirit protecting emperor, family, etc.)
    • direction of numen, e.g. Terminus (boundary marker around the edge of field. Has religious symbols on it to try and protect and nurture your crops)
  • PRIESTHOODS & SACRIFICES
    • Developed to direct people in the right direction
    • A very religious people with many different priesthoods
      • pontifex maximus (chief priest): chooses priests, Vestal virgins
      • Vestal Virgins (cult of hearth-goddess Vesta; sworn to chastity)
      • augur (from etruscan): look for numen in nature. "are the sacred chickens eating?" examines movements of stars, flights of birds (auspices)
      • haruspex (from etruscan): examines entrails of sacrificial animals (omens). Examine the liver of an animal.
    • sacrifice: act of piety; worshipper hopes for favour from gods
    • food or liquid burnt on altar (preferably by priest); vows suovetaurilia (sacrifice of pig, sheep and bull)
  • DEITIES & TEMPLES
    • deities, e.g. Jupiter (thunder), Ceres (grain), Janus (beginnings)
    • Capitoline Triad (Jupiter, Juno, Minerva): shrine is in the temple on Capitoline Hill
    • Adapted/adopted Greek divinities over time, gave them latin names
    • temple: orig. = area for auspices; built for sacrificing; cult home for the god/godess; later, permanent building
    • usually rectangular; contains cult statue; high podium with stairs
    • temple = house of god, not a place of congregation; altar outside for public display of sacrifice
  • EARLY PAGAN RELIGION
    • festivals (holidays): incl. Spectacles (provided by magistrates (preists))
      • Saturnalia (December): slave holiday, reversal of roles, gifts. Origins of christmas? Exchange roles. Servants waited on by masters. Exchange of gifts amongst upper class.
    • family religion: Lares (gods that protect your property), Penates (protext your cupboards). Each family had their own set of gods they prayed to.
    • lararium (shrine of the Lares) = niche in wall for offerings etc.
    • floor must be kept clean (evil spirits); spring "housecleaning"
    • all about the good omens and bad omens
    • Roman Paterfamilias carrying busts of his ancestors (the famous ones) as part of annual religious celebration
    • Part of his role as family priest
• Review For Test (about an hour in length)
  • Test #1 covers content, movies & readings from lectures 1-4
  • You have 1 hour to complete this test
  • Part A: 20 multiple Choice (20 X 1 mark)
  • Part B: 20 Fill in the Blanks (20 X 2 marks)
  • Part C: 10 T/F (10 X 1 mark)
  • Part D: Given 15, Provide info for 10. Identify and explain the significance of any 10 of 15 words, terms, people or events in 1-3 sentences (10 X 3 marks)
  • Will be asked ONE date. It's an obvious one. There is one major date that we must know.
  • Spelling isn't that important

Day V

• The Death of Julius Caesar
  • After killing him, the conspirators fled town, knowing there would be counter revolt
  • 48 BC Wins Civil War with Pompey
  • Consul 48, 46 and 45 BCv
  • Dictator for 10 years in 46 BC (unprecedented)
  • 44 BC Murdered on the Ides (15th) of March
  • Brutus & Cassius the leading conspirators (of 60)
    • proclaim the death of a "tyrant" and the "restoration of the Republic"
  • Cleopatra & Caesarion return to Egypt
  • Marc Antony momentarily holds power. He is the heir apparent, looking to become the next Caesar
  • Where Rome becomes an empire
• The Rise of Octavian Caesar
  • Things were looking good for Marc Antony until Octavian comes along
  • Octavian knows his own weaknesses and fills those voids with people who are good
  • Caesars favourite nephew, and was very much under the radar until Caesars will was discovered
  • Caesar adopted him in his will, and said he will be the heir
  • 63 BC born a sickly(epileptic), but handsome, brave and scholarly child
  • 44 BC adopted by great uncle Julius Caesar in his will (only 18 years old!)
    • Was studying in northern Greece at the time
    • Quickly showed a shrewd & forceful personality
    • Saw power of his uncle, and risks of claiming his inheritance
    • Saw Marc Antony (Caesar’s friend and second in command) as his major rival to taking his inheritance
    • Antony felt he should be Caesar’s heir, and brushed Octavian off
    • 18 in the presense of older, powerful men
  • Portrait Bust of the Young Octavian Caesar: [inset picture]
  • Changes his name from Octavian Caesar to Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus: he knew that shows it is dedicated, loving 'son'
  • Gathers many of Caesar’s veterans to him with promises of bonuses if they support him
  • Marches on Rome and demands his inheritance and Caesar’s Consulship. They give it to him, and he is only 18
  • Has Julius Caesar deified (Julius Caesar is now a god). People think "wow, he is a good son", and is now a son of a god.
• Octavian in Rome, 43 BC
  • Senate does not wish another civil war
  • The senate sees Marc Antony as a threat, and they side with Octavian
  • Both hand over power to Octavian, and he plays naive for a second, then takes the power
  • Most troops won’t fight against him, and people love him as Caesar’s heir
  • Senate see ambition of Marc Antony, and wish to "use" Octavian against him
  • Marc Antony turns over inheritance and Senate grants him a Consulship. he is politically clumsy, a hedonist, etc... and looks stupid in front of the senate.
  • Both try to "use" Octavian for their own purposes. Octavian plays stupid
• 2nd Triumvirate (43 BC)
  • Octavian, Lepidus (a political player in Rome), Antony create a new alliance to share power and keep the peace
  • Lepidus & Antony hope to undermine Octavian and remove him from power
    • Octavian (western & northern provinces) (He gets Rome!)
    • Marc Antony (Greece, Asia & Egypt)
    • Lepidus (Africa)
    • Proscriptions held to eliminate all their enemies (300 Senators, 2000 Equestrians + Cicero). They just made a list of people that needed to be killed to maintain their power.
  • 42 BC Battle of Philippi (Brutus and Cassius and the last Republican army defeated)
    • civil war ends (the conspiracy against caesar is over)
    • 2nd Triumvirate begins to disintegrate. Octavia and Marc Antony become brothers in law.
  • 40 BC Octavian’s sister, Octavia the Younger, marries Marc Antony to cement their alliance
• Cleopatra VII
  • 41 BC Marc Antony meets her at Tarsus (Asia Minor). She fled and stayed out of the civil war
    • explain her role in the civil war
    • came on a barge (like a love boat) dressed as Venus
  • Antony falls in love, spends the rest of his time in the East
  • Marries Cleopatra & has 3 children: in an Egyptian ceremony, but is also married to Octavia (Octavians sister)
  • Gives most of Eastern Roman Empire to Cleopatra and her children. Egyptian empire has never been bigger, even in the great pharroh days.
  • Scandalous behaviour and an insult to Octavia and Octavian
  • Mentally she was a giant of her time
• The End of the 2nd Triumvirate
  • Octavian stays in the West and builds his powerbase in Rome
  • 36 BC Lepidus tries to invade Sicily, but army defects to Octavian
    • Lepidus retires and becomes Pontifex Maximus (Cheif Preist of Rome, no power)
  • Octavia brings money and troops to her husband, and he tells her to go home.
  • 32 BC Marc Antony divorces Octavia
  • Octavian convinces Senate to declare war on Cleopatra (clever move, cause if you declare war on Marc Antony you are declaring civil war!)
  • 31 BC Battle of Actium (really just a big naval battle) (Antony & Cleopatra commit suicide)
    • Marc Antony things cleopatra died, attempts to kills himself. Cleopatra subsequently commits suicide
    • their children raised by Octavia (but Caesarion murdered on Octavians orders because "One Caesar is enough")
  • Egypt annexed as a Roman Province
• The Octavian’s Political Options
  • 27 BC had settled all issues dealing with civil war & annexation of Egypt
  • He holds sole power as Rome’s greatest warlord
  • Now what?
    • a) retire & risk civil war or assassination
    • b) wield power openly
    • He created a third option: Create the appearance of a Republic, by giving most of his power back to the Senate through a slow process of trial & error top see what would be tolerated
    • rule from the shadows, not the stage!
    • the more he gives back, the more he gets back. plays the puppeteer, not the front man
  • 27 BC offers to give back all power to the Senate (during his 7th Consulship) but is refused
  • The senate gives back all the little parts, resulting in a "divine emporer" again
    • Give him a title: "Restores the Republic" (age 35)
    • Proconsular Power : total control of the army
    • "Augustus" (revered one) : title given, used instead of octavian
    • month of August named after him (religious award)
    • Consul 13 times
    • Tribune 37 years in a row! (can't kill them, semi-divine)
    • Ranking Senator for 40 years (sits in an engages like a normal senator, not a dictator)
    • Censor (what economic rank you fit into)
    • Pontifex Maximus (high preist)
    • Imperator 21 times (title for great victories you or your generals won for you)
    • 2 BC "Father of the Country"
    • Princeps ("first citizen" playing as the servant of the people) vs Rex (A bad name)
• The Principate
  • "The Rule of the First Citizen"
  • Façade of Republicanism
    • all runs and appears as it should
    • Augustus rans all from the shadows vs open rule
  • Pax Romana "The Roman Peace" (Rome doesn't have civil wars of crisis)
  • Temple of Mars closed (Temple they have when at war when they are threatened)
  • Aided by his wife, Livia (6 years older) (best friend, devoted wife, mother, ruled like a co-emperor)
  • Groomed a fatherly and pious image
  • Imperial bureacracy
    • bulids the civil services to run things
    • slaves & freedmen in the Imperial palace
    • empire runs efficiently because of this, and survives longer than it should have because it is set up so well
  • Julia
    • only natural child
    • she rebels
    • exiled for adultery
  • Livia
    • matronly and respectable first lady
  • Designate heir
    • he picks 3, and all die mysteriously before him
    • all die, only left with Tiberius (Livia’s son, not from him) (Octavian didn't really like him)
    • made Tiberius marry Julia
    • Senate allows him to designate a successor (creation of an imperial family line)
  • Augustus Octavian Caesar Dies
  • "I found Rome a city of brick and left it a city of marble"
  • 14 AD dies - applause on his death bed?!
  • Senate deifies him, builds temples and creates a priesthood in his honour (the devine augustus)

Day VI

• THE JULIO-CLAUDIAN EMPERORS(14 - 68 AD)
  • 14 AD Augustus dies
  • Senate so inspired they allow Augustus to designate an heir
  • Creation of a "Caesar" in memory of Caesar, not "Rex"
  • Rome accepts one man rule in the façade of Republicanism
  • In reality, an Emperor who rules the Roman Empire as his own private domain has been created
  • Augustus had no natural son, only Julia (daughter)
    • his first three designated heirs all died before he did
    • Eventually, he had to designate Tiberius, Livia’s son (step son) from her previous marriage (didn’t really like him)
    • Livia was pregnant with Tiberius when she left Tiberius’ father and married Octavian!
• Tiberius (14-37 AD)
  • age 52 at the time of Augustus’ death
    • burnt out, brooding, resentful & heavy-handed, with no political finese
    • hesitant to take power (but had been a good general & organizer)
    • lived in awe of Augustus
    • upset that he was forced to divorce a wife he loved to marry Julia
  • Started well, but he was following Augustus (who was great), which is hard to do
  • Starts by Deifying Augustus: made a god
  • consult the Senate at first
    • quickly becomes a paranoid resentful old man. Thinks people are out to get him, knowing he was the 4th choice
    • begins treason trials against perceived enemies, and bulids enemies between Senate and People
    • Paranoia gets worse because of his being solitary
  • 26 AD semi-retire to Capri
    • left his nephew, Caligula (by brother Germanicus) (Tiberius' nephew) in Rome to run Empire
    • Caligula aided by Macro (his army strong man) (Prefect of the Praetorian Guard)
  • Spent most time in his "pleasure palace" in Capri(?)
    • porn collection & he liked to go swimming with "little fishes" -> kids who were naked
    • abused Senators and their wives
  • 37 AD dies (stroke or murder)
    • no heir, but Caligula & Macro are both present
    • Praetorian Guard proclaim Caligula Emperor (precedent), and Caligula knows that he owes them
    • "To the Tiber with Tiberius" they didn't actually throw him in the river though. He was one of the few not deified.
• Caligula (37-41 AD)
  • 25 years old when he comes to power (son of Germanicus, nephew of Tiberius)
  • Named "Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus Germanicus" Caligula is a nickname
    • Nick-named "little boots" (Caligae), probably not called that as emperor to his face
    • nervous youth (2 elder brothers killed by Praetorian Guard)
    • hid a nasty and sadistic streak. Two faced individual.
  • Greeted by the Roman people with much celebration. He's not Tiberius, and Germanicus's son)
  • Immensely popular at first (Germanicus’ son & not Tiberius)
  • Paid bonuses to Praetorian Guard (bad precedent, cause someone could offer more)
  • Shared money of Tiberius & Livia’s will, ended treason trials
  • Liked to be at the games & among common people, better than Tiberius
  • Restored the authority of the Assemblies
  • Campaigned with the army and held their loyalty. Looks like one of the guys
  • October 37 AD fell ill (7 months into reign)
    • fell into a coma
    • recovered after a few months
    • saw self as the god Jove, sent to 'heal' Rome
    • Schizophrenia or something, but the reality check was gone. Wished to be Deified while alive.
  • Druscilla (favourite sister, he wanted to marry and make a goddess)
  • Incitatus (favourite race horse, wanted to make a senator)
    • Marble stable, purple robe, wanted to make him a Senator
  • Declared War on English Channel (the water) collects sea shells as 'money'
  • Brothel in Palace, makes privileged women hookers
  • Spent 3 billion sesterce surplus that Tiberius had saved
  • Augustus had set up a really good government so that the place could survive with a really bad leader
  • Wanted Governor of Judea to put statue of himself in Holy of Holies in Jerusalem. So they built it really slowly...
  • Treason trials, starts them up again
  • Murdered by Praetorian Guard
• Claudius (41-54 AD)
  • 51 years old uncle of Caligula
  • Praetorians found him hiding in the imperial palace after they killed Caligula
  • Paraded him before the Senate & proclaimed him Caesar (bad precedent!)
  • A physical wreck
    • physical afflictions, drooled, twitched, stuttered, runny nose, limp (club foot)
    • alcoholic
    • ridiculed by Caligula (threw walnuts at him!)
    • hidden in the palace by Augustus when he was a child
  • Great scholar
    • because he was ignored, his refuge was books. Taught by brilliant scholars of the time
    • last Etruscan speaker that we know of
    • wrote on Etruscans, Carthaginians and Augustus (whom he admired)
  • Britain conquered
  • Continued with what Augustus was doing with public works (Augustus)
  • Senate disliked him for lecturing them on their duties "Why are you bickering?"
  • No treason trials
  • unlucky in love!
    • Messalina (wife of Claudius)
      • descendant of Augustus
      • bathed in donkey’s milk!
      • bore Claudius 2 children, Ocatavia & Britannicus
      • 48 AD married her lover, public honeymoon, ended with a executed with her lover
    • Agrippina (sister of Caligula, niece of Claudius & mother of Nero from a previous marriage)
      • Mother of NERO
      • a total terror!
      • her fourth marriage, his third
      • 50 AD made Claudius adopt Nero as his principal heir (4 years older than Brittanicus, but she is blood)
      • 53 AD made Claudius marry Octavia to Nero (to sement Nero as heir)
      • Knows she can control Claudius
    • 54 AD Agrippina poisons Claudius’ mushrooms at a banquet & kills him
      • (he was a good man, in a bad body, and didn't deserve the end he got)
• Nero (54-68 AD)
  • //WHY must he use Bill Gates as the modern day example of a Caesar??
  • 16 years old when he is made Caesars
  • Born in 37 AD (a descendant of Augustus on both sides of his family)
  • Popular at first
    • guided by Agrippina, Seneca (philosopher) and Burrus (Prefect of the Praetorian Guard)
    • they taught him, and controlled him
    • very artsy and dressed like a charioteer (considered low class entertainer) in public (a bit scandalous!)
  • Agrippina tries to control Nero and be co-ruler of Rome
    • uses the threat of Claudius' son Britannicus to keep him in check
    • Nero rebels and wants to rule alone
  • 55 AD divorces Octavia (she is a nice Roman girl, wants a party girl) & later poisons Britanbnicus
  • 59 AD has Agrippina put to death ("Stab me where I gave birth to the Viper!") & marries Poppea (not a high class lady, but makes him happy)
  • 62 AD all advisors are dead or go into retirement\
    • more interested in theatre singing, arts, music & horse-racing than ruling
    • performs "his works" in public, and becomes scandalous
    • street performers considered low class
    • anyone who fals asleep during performance was put to death
  • 64 AD Great Fire of Rome
    • Nero was gone
    • burns for days
    • 3/4 of city destroyed
    • Nero watches and composes song of the burning of Troy! (plays lyre)
    • He is an artist, it inspires him.
    • Sent Praetorian guard in to buid fire breaks
  • 64 AD beginning of Christian persecutions
    • Nero uses Christians as a scapegoat to take suspicions off of him
  • Golden House
    • his massive public amusement park, gardens, private palace
    • zoo, place to exercise, etc. Nobels thought it was a waiste
    • Oculus in ballroom (Gold, revolving dome)
    • Took a lot of flack for his spending habits
  • rowls streets at night assaulting people
  • Turns good men away and keeps scoundrels close by
  • Poppea dies (she was pregnant, he kicked her, she died)
  • Dress as wild animal, etc...
  • 66 AD went on a tour of Greece (1808 first prize awards, every place he went, for singing, dancing, etc...)
  • 68 AD Galba - Governor of Spain rebels, and others follow, turn on Nero
    • he realizes that he has lost support
    • Commits suicide
    • gets his slave to stab him
    • Dying words: "Quolis artifex pereo"/"What a great artist dies in me"
  • Last of the Julio-Claudians - no heir
    • civil war follows
• ROMAN RECREATION
  • They have a lot of free time. Their work day ends about mid-day
  • children's games:
    • evens and odds
    • pitching/stacking nuts
    • dolls
    • "bronze fly"
    • "jar"
    • toy carts (mouse chariot races!)
    • "triangle"(a ball game), etc.
  • Dawn to 7th hour is their work day
  • Adult Games
    • ball
    • board games
    • dice
    • knuclebones
  • Dinner Parties, banquets, show off wealth, make business and social connections
  • Taverns, take out food, and prostitues
  • During the reign of Claudius there were 159 public holidays/year (not all could afford to take those days off)
  • forum (Mall type place, a public place); libraries; triumphs; festivals
  • Campus Martius (public military exercise field)
  • tourism: eastern tours to the orient, egypt, greece, middle east;
  • temples became museums from many of the artifacts
  • leaving town: villas, baths, hunting/fishing, beaches (best beaches were Baiae/Capri)
    • best resorts in the south
    • only the rich could afford this
  • thermae (baths, most popular activity for everyone): hot, warm, cold pools; like going to the spa; heating system; mineral baths; exercise court; refreshments; locker room; public toilets; strigil (a bronze scraper, scraped off dead skin)
  • 170 Baths in Rome at the time of Augustus
  • 4thc 1000 Baths in Rome alone (there wasn't a lot of running water, so thats where you go to get clean)
  • Baths of Diocletian held 3000 people at a time!

    "Baths, wine & sex ruin our bodies. But what makes life worth living, except baths, wine & sex?" (epitaph)

  • circus (chariot racing): long track with spine; 7 laps; "factions"
  • Cicus Maximus (the largest race course) is 550 metres long and holds 250,000
  • 24 races a day, heavy betting
  • Reds, Blues, Greens & Whites (Racing Factions) They vote, bet and cheered on them
  • amphitheatre (gladiator/animal fights); oval arena e.g. Colosseum(held 50,000)
  • theatre (drama): semicircular; associated with festivals. From the big to the local. Do enjoy comedies
  • pantomimes; music halls (odeons)
  • gladiators=slaves; training school; diff. types of gladiator
• DINING
  • General Information
    • Only real entertainment at night
    • 2 light meals (bread, water, leftovers) for breakfast & lunch
    • 1 main meal in the evening
    • differences between Roman and modern menu
      • less fatty than our menu
      • olives, cabbage, beans, leaks, little meat (expensive) & no sugar
      • honey, wine & fruit to sweaten diet
      • boiled sheep lips common meat for the poor
      • much boiling vs baking (no ovens for the poor)
    • All drank wine (heavily diluted, it's a social thing. Intoxication was considered bad, it was also more sanitary)
    • porridge replaced by bread (2nd c. BC): round loaf
    • veggies and fruits (no tomatoes, potatoes or citrus fruit -> they grow in North/South America)
    • meat = expensive, esp. beef; poor eat chicken if at all
    • fish and seafood very plentiful, esp. in Rome. Not far from Water
    • There is no refridgeation, so you cook and eat the catch of the day
    • sauces: sweet and sour; garum (pungent black fish-sauce) put on fish, to bring taste out
    • cookbook of "Apicius"
      • 450 recipes(including Numidian Chicken, & Anchovy Delight, without anchovies!)
      • breakfast & lunch = snacks (leftovers, or purchased at snack bar)
    • cena (dinner): eaten in triclinium (dining room)
    • 9th hour is the time for major meal (10 hour day)
    • 3 couches ("U" shape) to lie on; round table for food service
    • etiquette: left elbow on cushion, feet to right; plate in left hand, eat with right (fingers, unless spoon needed; no fork or knife)
    • napkins (provided, or bring your own to wrap leftovers)
      • often of rich cloth
      • not just to wipe face, but to enable leftovers to be taken home
      • Catullus calls Marrucinus "the napkin thief"
    • "mixed" dinner parties (women sit on chairs, not polite for women to recline with other men)
    • waiters (fancy dress and hairdo/big perm showed you are a waiter) vs. busboys
    • courses: (3) appetizers, entrées (numerous), dessert
    • tried to impress people with the exotic nature of your meal
    • Trimalchio's dinner (in novel by Petronius)
    • Vomitarium - you eat as much as you can, then you go throw up into a big brass bucket. You stick a feather down your throat. It is called "Purging"
    • dinner from mid-afternoon to whenever, the only thing that limited it was how late you felt walking home at night.
      • (if you are a patron, your clients will take you home)
    • skeleton displayed: enjoy life while you can!
  • TRIMALCHIO'S FEAST
    • Trimalchio is a character in Petronius’ Satyricon
      • he is a freedman who attains great wealth and power
      • shows off his "class" by hosting a lavish "Banquet of Trimalchio"
      • golden cups & plates
      • wears a scarlet cloak as a sign of his wealth
      • wears large gold rings
      • napkins have broad purple strip (mock Senator toga!)
    • HORS-D'OEUVRE
      • Black and Green Olives with Relishes
      • Dormice (actually mice) seasoned with Poppy Seeds and Honey
      • Sizzling Sausages on a bed of Syriam Plums and Pomegranate seeds
      • Light Pastry Pea-fowl Eggs stuffed with spiced Garden Warblers
      • Falernian Wine 100 years old (often lied, to impress)
    • SECOND COURSE
      • Chickpeas
      • Beef
      • Bull Testicles and Kidneys
      • African Figs
      • Uterus of a Sow
      • Pie and Cake
      • Small Sea Fish
      • Rabbit
      • Lobster
      • Goose
      • Two Mullets (small fish)
      • Honeycomb
      • Hot Bread
      • Chickens
      • Sows' Udders
      • A Hare with wings fastened to its back like Pegasus
      • Fish floating in a stream of fish sause
      • Wild Boar, stuffed with live Thrushes
      • Syrian and Theban Dates
      • Suckling Pigs made out of Pastry
    • THIRD COURSE
      • Enormous Pig with the stomach filled with Black Pudding and Sausages
• DEATH AND BURIAL
  • Death was an opportunity to show piety and reverance
  • funerary rites = show of pietas (respect, devotion)
  • dying person placed on ground (closer to earth, sole can rest);
  • last words were considered prophetic
  • after death: mourning; body washed, anointed, dressed in best toga
  • followed by a period Mourning (not required), you could only mourn for so long:
    • (couldn't wear white, socialize, go to parties while morning)
    • for parents & children over 6 – 1 year
    • for children under 6 – 1 month
    • for a husband or wife – 10 months
    • for a close blood relative – 8 months
  • placed on funerary couch; hearth (fire of the house) extinguished
    • wax death mask made (to make a bust of the person)
    • actors hired (to dress and act like them as they die)
  • flowers, lamps/candles, cypress boughs placed in front of house
  • burial (for poor in mass graves) vs. cremation (for rich, considered the best way to go)
  • funeral procession to cemetery (outside the pomoerium, not buried inside the city)
    • originally at night (torchlight)
    • later by day (too many people), except poor, children
  • musicians, torchbearers, professional mourners (payed to cry), clients, ancestral portraits, clowns, dancers (strange Roman sense of humour)
  • wooden coffin (poor) vs. elaborate tomb (rich)
  • sarcophagus (stone coffin with lid, often decorated with reliefs, depends on wealth. Found very few of them)
  • grave goods (pottery, jewelry, coin to pay passage to underworld, over eyes, or under tongue)
  • mausoleum (tomb building); sometimes arranged in "streets" (necropolis)
    • rich have monuments lining the road to Rome
    • poor have ashes in boxes in niches of walls of underground chambers (catacombs)
  • tombstone information
    • name
    • age
    • origin
    • career (took great pride in that)
    • relatives
  • deceased portrayed on tomb reliefs (family groups; kids with pets) Portrait of deceased on the tombstone, and what you care about
  • tombs protected by curses; often found on roadside
  • cremation: funeral pyre (possessions burned with deceased)
  • ashes placed in urn or amphora (e.g. Ostia)
  • columbarium (underground chamber with niches for urns), catacombs under Rome
  • collegium : freed slaves and poor, payed dues every month, social club providing funerals and banquets for its members; often based on a particular trade)
• GLADIATORS
  • General Information
    • Originally they had two slave soldiers fight over the grave of a great fallen soldier this developeed into the Gladiator games
      • First Gladiator games in 264 BC
    • Usually slaves, not always
    • Chant before the battle, address the emporer: "Ave, imperator, morituri te salutant": "Hail, emperor, we who are about to die salute you!"
    • Trajan, he held 117 days of contests, with 10,000 gladiators involved
    • "Thumbs down" = live
    • "Thumbs up" = killing blow to the throat
    • Successful gladiators became rich celebrities
    • Only fought about 4 times per year on average, training and healing time required
  • TYPES OF GLADIATORS
    • Various styles of gladiator and fighting developed (much betting!)
    • Trained to be a charactor. There were different types, created drama and show, like WWF
    Samnite
    • heavy, ornate body armour, with visored helmet and greaves
    • large, oblong square shield and sword or lance
    • right arm armoured
    • really heavy, slow, well armoured, small weapon
    Thracian
    • small curved sword and small round shield
    • leather bands on legs and thighs
    • fast, quick
    Myrmillo
    Heavy helmet with a sea fish crest
    • bare torso and legs
    • large rectangular or oval shield
    • dagger or short sword
    • greave on the left leg
    • wide leather or metal belt
    Andabatae
    • fully armoured riders on fully armoured horses(cataphracti)
    • wore heavy helmets with no eye holes!
    • Gave a lance, its like 2 blind guys jousting (fell out of favour)
    • charged blindly at each other with lances
    Eques
    • cavalry with only a sword or spear and a round shield
    Velites
    • unarmoured men armed with a spear
    Retarius
    • the "fisherman"
    • Trident spear, and net
    • Usually fights Myrmillo, who has fish crest on his head
    • armed with a trident or harpoon, a dagger and a fish net
    • wore leg or ankle bands and leather or metal shoulder piece on the left shoulder
    Essedarii
    • spearmen or archers in two-horse chariots
    • fight men on foot, other chariots, and wild animals
    • build terrain and islands on occasion in the colliseum
    • female gladiators (Boudicea, a warrior woman from Britain, not a lot of them) (they were not weak, though)
    Bestiarius
    • fought animals
    • almost put some of the animals to extinction
    • even put various animals against eachother
    Dimachaeri
    • armed with two daggers and no armour
    • knife fighters
    Sagittarii
    • armed with bow and arrows
    Scissores
    • the "carvers"(little is known about them)
    • animals vs animals
    • animals vs wounded/crippled humans
    • animals vs christians (christians didnt fight back)
    • Dwarves and cripples with blunt wooden weapons
    • Naval battles where the Colosseum was flooded (stopped, because they found it was weakening the foundation of the building)
    • Believed it thoughend you up to the world

DAY VII

• THE FLAVIAN EMPERORS (69-96 AD)
  • General Information
    • 68 AD Galba Governor of Spain rebels, and others turn on Nero
    • Nero commits suicide
    • 69 AD "The Year of the Four Emperors"
    • 1) Galba (Spanish legions and Praetorian Guard) too old, mean & cheap
    • 2) Otho (friend of Galba supported by Portuguese legions)
      • friend & fellow debaucher of Nero as well
      • losses Battle of Cremona to Vespasian
      • Expected to be maid heir, but when he wasn't he overthrew Galba and became it
    • 3) Vitellius (Rhine legions - leaders of the spanish legions)
      • declared by the legions, but did not want the job
    • 4) Vespasian (eastern legions in Syria-Judaea)
      • acclaimed by the legions and joined by the Danube legions, they march on Rome. Kills Otho
    • Titus Flavius Vespanasius/Vespasian (69-79 AD)
      • Born 9 AD
      • A blunt, honest soldier.
      • He will stab you from the front, but never from behind
      • Reform Rome politically, socially, economically
      • A soldier soldier, and a mans man
      • stabilize economy (tax everything!)
      • public pay toilets, sold contracts to collect urine to launderers who use it to bleach clothes
      • good administrator - encouraged people to be responsible. If you were incompetent you lost your job.
      • conquer Judea & consolidate frontiers (big jewish revolt, no more rebellion in Judea)
      • re-established the army
      • More and more equestrians would became part of beaurocracy and civil service
      • began Colosseum - people need a place to take their mind off their troubles. A place to relax and enjoy
      • "Ut puto deus fio" means "I think I'm becoming a god" on his death bed(this was kind of a joke, that's his sense of humour)
      • deified when he died
  • Vespasian & Numismatics
    • What do Imperial coins tell us?
    • Coin is inscribed with: IMPCAESVESPASIANAUGPMTRPPPCOSIII (This is like his resume. propaganda - who's the boss)
    • The first three letters are IMP for "Imperator" (the imperial title )
    • The next abbreviated word is CAES for "Caesar"
    • Following Caesar is the emperor's name "Vespasian"
    • The title AUG (not AVC) is short for "Augustus"
    • PM stands for "Pontifex Maximus"
    • TRP refers to "Tribunician Power"
    • The title PP is short for Pater Patriae (Father of the Country)
    • COS is short for "Consul" followed by the number of the consulship (his 3rd consulship - January 71 AD). We know that his 3rd Consulship began in January 71 AD, so that should date the coin
  • Titus (79-81 AD)
    • elder son of Vespasian. The heir apparent.
    • great general, people loved him
    • Put down Jewish Revolt and destroyed the Temple of Solomon in 70 AD
    • popular, generous and efficient
    • open Colosseum (Flavian Amphitheatre vs Colossus of Nero (a massive statue of Nero)) thus the name stayed "near the colloseum"
    • criticized for slow response to aiding the victims of the Mt. Vesuvius eruption in 79 AD
      • buried Pompeii & Herculaneum (they were like the retirement places of Rome) Most of the people died.
    • Died of disease while campaigning in the East. (packed in ice?)
    • deified
    • the people built an arch in his honour. "Arch of Titus". Rome was big on proclaiming their greatness
  • Domitian (81-96 AD)
    • younger brother of Titus. Lived in his brother’s shadow, was a nasty & murderous man
    • tried to restore old gods. Didn't like easter religions coming into Rome. Persecutes anything non-conservative
      • anti-Christian & Eastern cults
      • persecute Christians
    • 89 AD rebellion flamed his paranoia
      • saw conspiracies everywhere
      • began treason trials against Senators. Murders Senators on a grand scale
    • 96 AD murdered by the Praetorian Guard (they didn't like him)
      • damned by the Senate and all his statues torn down (that's pretty bad, when compared to his father and brother)
      • not deified
      • no heir - end of Flavian line
    • End of the Flavian line, start of a new set of civil wars
• PROVINCIAL ADMINISTRATION
  • General Information
    • Rome had c. 48 Provinces at its peak (europe,northern africa, and into western asia)
    • Roman control made use of local elites. There was much toleration of local politics, culture & religion. The original people were in charge for a reason.
    • If local law conflicts with Roman law, then local law wins
    • client kings (Kings who were there) (run internal affairs & friendship with Rome & look like status quo in effect)
      • knew the people, provide troops, $, supplies, spies to let the Kings settle their people
      • mostly in East they have client kingdoms. 100's of them after Alexander the Great. later become provinces (ie Judea)
    • provincial towns run by local council
      • local magistrates get Roman citizenship, set model of Romanization (loyalty & status)
    • Types of Provinces
      • Republic: provinces governed by Senatorial magistrates
      • Empire: 2 main types of province (senatorial, imperial) + Emperor’s provinces
      • senatorial: governor = proconsul (imperium - right to pro-consul, the right to control the army)
        • usually a military man/Senator
        • The more established, imperial provinces
      • imperial: governor = legate (hand-picked) (wilder provinces)
        • an Equestrian
      • Emperor's provinces = on frontiers (odd, not common, maybe 5)
        • usually on crucial frontiers (ie Persia) or politically fragile (ie Armenia) where things are kind of shaky
        • also controls Egypt (it produces the grain supply, feeds the people or Rome)
  • Provincial Concerns
    • provincial assembly could complain to Rome (ie corrupt or harsh Governor, high taxes, forced labour, crumbling cities, etc)
    • rescript (emperor's reply)
      • ie. Pliny (Gov of Bithynia-Pontus) and Emperor Trajan concerning Christians. What do we do with them? THey're supposed to be bad, what do we do. If they show up, deal with it, but don't go looking for them like witch hunts.
      • Illustrates the strong line of communication
    • Cursus Publicus (Imperial Postal Service)
      • checkpoints and rest stations for dispatch riders. Had horses, ships etc...
      • You could probably send letters comparable to todays snail mail system. Probably 7 days across the empire. Prevents mistakes being made, rebellion can happen quickly.
    • Provincial Magistrates
    • quaestor (senatorial prov.) = treasurer
      • taxes collected by Publicani (Republic), now in the Empire it is collected by the towns
      • The Publicani would collect from the towns
      • pay for Governor, government & military
      • They were quick to notice that they couldn't get too much out of the provincials
    • local magistrates: duovirs (judges, census), aediles (works, festivals), quaestors (finances)
    • procurator: looks after emperor's property in imperial provinces (land, palaces & military bases)
      • handles all finances (no quaestor) and watches Governor (no corruption or mismanagement)
      • Made sure everything was working okay in imperial provinces. Was a check with gov. to make sure there was no corruption.
      • Did the job of a super Questor, but had military power also. Was part Roman key people, part local key people to keep balance.
  • Benefits to Provinces
  • urbanization: esp. in the west. Introduced by Rome in western provinces (few major cities before)
    • Northern Europe was mainly forest
    • grow up around military camps. Soldiers in the camp, fortify the camp. Wives and kids would make huts outside the camp. Merchants also follow the army.
    • Aquaducts, sanitation, fortification. Major cause of urbanization of the west
  • town-country relations (rural food, urban merchandise)
    • often see each other as inferior
    • even though they needed eachother... not unlike today
  • colonia ("colony") a settlement of Roman citizens, veterans and surplus population in captured territory)
    • security & begin Romanization. Great way to Romanize a territory.
  • municipality (native town granted Latin right)
    • Latin Rights: first step to citizenship + economic advantages. Get a better deal with Rome. Better, cheaper goods.
  • all other towns = unprivileged
  • local animosity between "natives" & Roman army. They moved army around, and even put foreign soldiers into people's homes while the army was in town.

Lecture VIII

• THE "FIVE GOOD EMPERORS" (96-192AD)
  • Nerva (96-98)
    • 96 AD Praetorian Guard murder Domitian
    • Senate nominates him, quickly, as emperor to avoid civil war
    • elderly, childless, no heir, ideal senator
    • Prestigious & old, but no great leader, won't do anything wild
    • suspected by army (not a military man)
    • reduces taxes, recalls exiles, gives land to poor
    • alimenta: baby bonus to keep italian people in good numbers (scheme to help farmers & needy children) helps create bigger families
    • 97 AD adopts Trajan (respected & popular general) as son and successor. Nerva adopts an adult as a successor.
    • dies of old age after 16 months (stroke after shouting at an officer)
  • Trajan (98-117 AD)
    • Experienced general of the Rhine & Danube
    • from Spain (first non-italian/provincial emperor)
    • Put fiscal restraints onto overspending cities & provinces
    • expanded empire to its greatest extent
    • invasion of Dacia (across the Danube)
    • Trajan's Column (depicts Dacian war); Dacian gold, slaves
      • gives 75 denarii to each citizen of Rome from spoils of the war(congiaria)
    • annexes Arabia (a desert)
    • conquers Parthian Kindom (at a weak state), makes 3 new provinces
    • eastern war drains other frontiers
    • Economy is stretched thin from the wars and restrained spending
    • massive revolts as a result of financial strains of war
    • Dies on way home from Parthia from 'the plague'
  • Hadrian (117-138)
    • Another Spaniard
    ,
    • Curly hair and beard becomes fashionable, "adopted" by Trajan
    • An excellent emperor
    • Brings peace, prosperity & order
    • Ruled with a personal, "hands on" style. Spends much of his reign with military
    • abandons new provinces (except Dacia which was Romanized) to shorten the frontier. Pull back to the Rhine and Danube so they can hold a defensive stance
    • visits provinces and frontiers: builds Hadrian's Wall (across northern england)(practical, but defensive policy)
    • 2nd Jewish War(132-135) destroys remains of the Old Temple of Solomon at Jerusalem
      • replaced by a Temple of Jupiter (blasphemous)
      • begins Diaspora (Jews banned from Jerusalem)
    • expands Athens to a more modern city. Fan of Greek culture
    • rebuilds treasury and libraries
    • Builds the Panteon
    • excuse $900 million in back taxes to get people 'back in the game'
    • $ to poor and to poor Senators
    • 130 AD - boyfriend Antinuus commits suicide to ensure safety of Hadrian (divine honours and city of Antinuopolis founded)
    • top civil service posts go to equites (Equestrians are getting better and better positions)
    • bad relations with Senate (4 senators executed; jealous of equites)
    • Empire run by Emperor and Advisors (travel around and run government on the road), the Senate becomes more of a "town Council" and is less important than travelling advisors.
    • adopts Antoninus (adult); Antoninus adopts M. Aurelius and L. Verus (secure line of succession)
    • in old age developed a nosebleed for two years, and suffered a slow, lingering death from water accumulation in the body. Asked slaves to kill him, but they wouldn't.
  • Antoninus Pius (138-161)
    • insists on Hadrian's deification
    • excellent administrator and model of behaviour
    • maintains status quo
    • legal reforms
    • teachers to be paid by cities
    • university at Athens
    • Antonine Wall (north of Hadrian's): shorter but less secure
    • We spent about 30 seconds on this guy. Biggest thing was that he had a curly beard
  • Marcus Aurelius (161-180)
    • reluctant emperor: a good man at a bad time
    • insists that his "brother" Lucius Verus be co-emperor (161-169)
    • useless emperor - never won a battle
    • dies of apoplexy
    • Empire needs at least 2 men to run it
    • Stoic philosopher-statesman, not soldier
    • German tribes swarm across Danube and threaten Italy: "barbarians" begin to breach the Roman frontiers
    • long wars, Rome starts to see cracks in the empire. German super tribes start developing.
    • Plague ravages Italy, beginning of the long "decline & fall of Rome"
    • suffered great chest and stomach pains, became an "opium junkie", and died in sleep (or murdered?)
    • Didn't really want to be emperor, just wanted to help out. Rather be a stoic philosopher than fight war.
  • Commodus (180-192)
    • son of Aurelius
    • lacked ability (worst ruler since Nero)
    • addiction to pleasure (emperor as Hercules/god)
    • has Senate deify him while still alive!
    • abandons (a) invasion across Danube (buys off barbarians!), (b) Antonine Wall
    • appoints his favourites to high positions in Government
    • allows praetorian prefect to rule so he can play a Gladiator (low class)
    • appeared as a gladiator 735 times (opponents are animals or only allowed blunt wooden swords!)
    • alimenta (baby bonus) is suspended to fund his extravagense
    • reign of terror (many plots and purges)
    • assassinated (poison (by girlfriend) plus strangled (by boyfriend) by wrestling partner/lover)
    • damn his memory
    • civil war results after his death
  • Short-lived Emperors that follow…
    • Helvius Pertinax (193 AD):
      • assassinated after 87 days
    • Didius Julianus (193 AD): (bust at left)
      • Praetorian Guard auctions off the throne
      • does not pay up and is murdered after a few months by the Praetorian Guard
• THE SEVERAN DYNASTY (193-235 AD)
  • Septimius Severus (193-211)
    • a North African married into a Syrian royal family. The roman empire is multi-cultural
    • first Black/Berber Emperor, in a line of them
    • spoke Latin with a Punic accent!
    • shows cosmopolitan nature of the Roman Empire
    • declared Caesar by the Danube legions
    • replaces Praetorian Guard with his own troops
    • extends power of Equestrians (run legions, provinces)
    • alimenta restored
    • free medical care for everyone in the Roman empire
    • soldiers allowed to marry. Therefore the kids become legitimate heirs, and soldiers become happy
    • devaluation of coinage
    • recaptures Parthian provinces
    • Gains some peace & prosperity
    • Dies in York, England
    • Women in this family become very powerful and seem to have a lot of brains
  • Caracalla (211-217)
    • son of Severus & a bad ruler. As in many cases, a good guy is followed by a bad son
    • murders his brother Geta to gain power
    • raises army pay
    • increased taxes
    • citizenship to all except slaves (no incentive to join army!)
    • citizens could vote, enherit, trade
    • citizenship used to be a prize. People who earned it are not happy, and new people don't have to try
    • Have to hire more mercenaries to defend Rome
    • took part of Alexander the Great's tomb from Alexandria (last mention of the tomb)
    • assassinated during Parthian wars
  • Macrinus (217-218)
    • Praetorian Prefect of Caracalla
    • a Moor (North African)
    • He murdered Caracallas, and he himself is murdered after a few months
    • Looses war to parthians, something the Romans have won for a long time
  • Elagabalus (218-222)
    • chosen by Syrian legions
      • claimed to be the bastard son of Caracalla (he's not)
      • Women use him as a token
      • 15 years old, lunatic
    • religious fanatic of the Eastern (sun) cult of Heliagabalus
    • Brings big black rock of cult to Rome, this is the symbol of the cult.
    • imposes his religion on Rome & replaces Roman gods with the sun cult
    • Mom, Julia, & grandmother, Julia, ruled for him
    • travelled with a harem of "300 cute young boys and 300 cute young girls"
    • bloody, cruel, decadent & perverted
    • wore pearls & lots of make-up in public
    • murdered by Praetorians while hiding in a chest/privy
  • Alexander Severus (222-235)
    • cousin of Elagabalus
    • aged 13
    • historically referred to as a "sissy"
    • dominated by grandmother and mother (Julia Mamaea), who provided good, stable rule
    • Julia courts Senate(Alexander just a puppet)
    • Praetorian Prefect becomes senator (Ulpian)
    • Alexander tries to rule on his own, but is a poor warrior & ruler
      • defeats Persians
      • but bribes Germans to withdraw (insult to army, who wanted the money!) still claims it as a victory
    • army revolts, lead by Maximus the Thracian
    • "It’s Maximus or me!", and people pick Maximus
    • Alexander and Julia murdered by army, Alexander cries to mom that its all her fault!
    • End of Severan dynasty
• MEDICINE
  • General Info
    • real medicine developed in Greek world, little improvement until the 17th century
    • Greek doctors came to Rome as slaves, so medicine = servile
    • fees paid by patient (no OHIP)
    • Thought that you shouldn't bill someone for saving their life, that was low class
    • medical schools (Alexandria etc.) optional; apprenticeship usual
    • There was no formal doctorate, you just said "I am a doctor"
    • Hippocratic corpus, oath (Hippocrates, 5th c. BC)
    • Celsus (1st c. AD): Latin medical textbooks; reliance on drugs. Very pro drugs
    • Galen (2nd c. AD): influence extends beyond Roman period, phsyiology, etc...
    • no licensing, or malpractice, therefore some physicians were deadly

      "Until recently, Diaulus was a doctor;
      Now he is an undertaker.
      He is still doing as an undertaker,
      What he used to do as a doctor." —
      Martial. Epigrams 1.47

  • Causes & Cures
    • epidemics, e.g. kissing disease (during the time of Tiberius), plague (160's-170's)
    • reason for plagues was an ignorance of hygiene
      • toilet in kitchen or on shared bench
      • live in close quarters
      • ghettos/crowded insulae
      • no washing of hands
      • mice & fleas everywhere
    • home remedies: Cato on cabbage (Cabage was a cure-all) and magic spells (ie chanting for a dislocated shoulder)
    • Cures for Jaundice
      • Drink the ashes of a deer’s antlers and blood of an ass diluted with wine
      • Drink the first manure excreted by a foal after birth (get the bean-sized ones!), diluted with wine
      • Cure guaranteed in 3 days
      • Placebo effect
    • treatments: diet, rest, blood-letting (leeches), enemas, ointments
    • pharmacy: ointments in cakes with stamped directions (many herbal remedies) no antibiotics, no anaesthetic (mostly use strong, warm wine), didn't know that alcohol thins blood
    • temple of Aesculapius (middle of Tiber River, island): dream-cures (you go to temple, if you sleep there and get a dream where god tells you how to heal yourself). If slaves didnt die, they were set free
    • Rome builds hospitals: work on sanitation & fresh water, figures out they were keys to health
    • spas (mineral/hot springs) - many still in use today
    • alternative = home remedies
    • Fresh water: the aquaducts had a lot of water per day coming in, plenty
    • surgical tools: lancets, scalpels, probes, forceps, clamps, saws etc. (mostly of steel/iron vs stainless steel)
  • Battlefield Surgery
    • A mosaic from Pompeii shows army surgeons working in the field
    • Army surgeons operate on the field
    • Stretcher-bearers paid by the number of wounded they bring to the doctor
    • Dentistry
      • Less sugar in diet, so fewer cavities, but worn teeth
      • Believe toothache caused by worm
      • Extractions, wiring, filling, bridgework, dentures
      • Toothpowder: not to fight cavities, but for white teeth, clean mouth
      • Brush teeth with a finger or chewed stick
      • Dental patients tied down
• TECHNOLOGY
  • Science: knowledge; e.g. Cato's treatises, Pliny's Natural History
    • scientific discoveries were made mostly by Greeks, not Romans
    • Romans are eclectic. Combine all the good parts of other conquered societies
    • Romans a labour intensive people, prefered slaves to techonology because slaves were status
    • not push to develop new technology
  • metallurgy: coins, statues, tools etc. (stamped, cast or forged)
  • catapults: powered by sinew wound onto windlass
  • hydraulic engineering: water moved by siphon, pump, aqueduct (based on Greek designs)
  • draining of Roman Forum (swamp). Built drainage systems
  • Agrippa's and Claudius' aquaducts: provide 445 L water/person/day to Rome. That is a lot
  • Cloaca Maxima (main sewer of Rome): Very good pay. paid 25 denarii/day + meals vs a teacher’s 50 denarii/student/month
  • mines use horizontal tunnels; ore flushed and filtered
  • smelting furnaces and pottery kilns
  • machines:
    • lever, pulley, siphon (muscle power for the most part)
    • discussion in Vitruvius (10 volumes on engineering & architecture). He talks about different styles of using the things above, doesn't go beyond Greek work.
    • water-lifting screws, treadmills, cranes, paddlewheels. Still used in Nile today
  • ships: powered by sail (useless if wind wrong) and oars
  • animal power, e.g. to move heavy loads
  • milling:
    • push mill
    • donkey mill
    • hand mill
  • Romans did not have windmill, rubber, crank, big factories
  • labour saving devices unsuccessful, e.g. Gallic reaper (beginning of a threashing machine for fields)
  • Develope bizar weapons when their army is stretched thin
• OCCUPATIONS
  • (sources: Cicero, Dio of Prusa, Plutarch, Horace, Martial, Lucian, St. Matthew; tombstones)
  • urban plebs: idle rabble, or work-force?
    • most hired as day labourers (menial work, construction, etc)
    • Forum as labour pool; pay 1 denarius per day
    • keep poor busy & happy
  • stigma against undignified jobs (anything worked for wages) (manual work for wages; factories; tax collection; retailing; food services, perfume, entertaining, fish sellers, butchers, cooks, poultry raisers, fishermen, salesmen, peddlers & porters)
  • regular wages are suitable only for slaves
  • respectable workers are paid for the item produced or the service performed. Things that have a production quality.
  • good jobs: art, medicine, architecture, teaching, FARMING
  • other factors in finding a job: training, money, talent, inclination
    • architecture & law are expensive fields to study
  • taberna (shop): often a family operation. Store in front, house in back.
    • usually located at front of house
    • family trade
    • Place for a freedperson to sleep
  • small factories:
    • collegia (workers' associations, social clubs) like guilds
    • apprenticeships in some trades (ie weaving & sculpting, and medicine)
    • collegia sometimes involved in politics, e.g. firemen
    • roots of the Medieval Guild system with working standards
  • tombstones name professions or show them in relief
  • 200+ different jobs attested, largely at Rome (some jobs regional)
    • ie local wines, pottery styles, fishermen & shepherds
  • women:
    • Nobel roman women don't work
    • work mostly in service trades (catering, nursing, prostitution was legitimate, shepherd comfort girl)
    • tabernae (barmaid, cook "hostess")
    • "feminine" crafts (weaving, laundry, crafts)
    • often learned their trade at a young age
    • Epitaphs for Viccentia, a 9 year old gold worker, and Pieris, a 9 year old hair dresser (small fingers for fine trades)
• COMMUNICATIONS
  • Rome builds 53,000 miles of roads
  • Appian Way
    • oldest road from Rome to Capua to move troops quickly
    • first major military highway built in 312 BC
    • 132 miles long
    • designed for speed
    • After war had good potential for trade
  • Most roads built by Marius’ Mules
  • road construction techniques, done in spare army time
  • 1 metre deep trench
  • larger stones < under smaller stones < under cement
  • Topped with gravel, flint & slabs
  • milestones every mile
  • curatores viarum Via means Road (local officials in charge of roads) look after their own section of road
  • cursus publicus (Imperial postal system)
  • Via means Road
  • mansiones (inns run by the state)
  • diploma (permit to use Imperial Post system)
  • People built private inns and their facilities to make money
  • cisium (two-wheeled big heavy cart, could only travel at night in Rome)
  • water was a much cheaper and faster transport than road. Most ships travelled around the coast
  • Alexandria
    • (chief port of Egypt)
    • grain freighters to bring grain over. sink easy, big and combersom
    • annona (grain supply)
    • amphoras (clay shipping containers)
  • shipping hazards
  • Storm
  • Pirates
  • Shipwreck
  • Insurance fraud - old ship, just 'sinks', get money back
  • lighthouses built where they could. Straights of Gibralter, Alexandria, etc.
  • Ostia (seaport of Rome, at mouth of Tiber)
  • Rhine, Rhône (main rivers of Gaul (Germany))
  • imports and exports from all parts of Roman empire
  • terra sigillata (red-gloss pottery)
  • 2.5% tax on goods crossing provincial borders.
    • No free trade to "protect" local industries
    • Everyone gets a cut of profits
  • precious metals leave the empire to pay for oriental goods
    • much money goes out, but less comes in as Roman expansion stops
    • creates inflation & stalled economy

Day IX

• IMPERIAL LITERATURE
  • • Augustan Writers (GOLDEN AGE)
    • covers the reigns of Augustus, Tiberius & Caligula
    • a great deal of patronage
  • LIVY
    • (64 BC–AD 17)
    • (Perhaps greatest prose writer in roman history, very patriotic, and much of it propaganda)
    • From northern Italy (1st c. BC)
    • greatest prose writer in Rome
    • shows great eloquence and great speeches
    • very patriotic. Rome always does the right thing
    • plays up Rome’s enemies and plays down Roman vices
    • Uses several sources, some questionable
    • History of Rome (year by year) from early Republic to Augustus in 142 Books)
    • arranged by Consular year, event, theme or idea (creative format)
    • left ideas/facts out if it destroyed or confused his themes/thesis
    • writes history to make his message, rather than for truethful sake. Biblical Historical Truth & Moral Truth
  • Vergil
    • (70 BC – 19 BC)
    • poet from northern Italy
    • recognized as #2 to Homer by his peers
    • patronized by Maecenas (a friend of Augustus)
    • Ecologues (pastoral poetry) ideal country people vs ugly city dwellers
    • Georgics (farming poetry) contrast gaudy life of city dwellers vs the simple life
    • Aeneid His claim to fame (Fall of Troy to the rise of Augustus)
      • a national epic/propaganda value
      • story of Aeneas & son Iulus
      • love affair with Dido
      • Rome’s great ancestors from Venus to Augustus
      • beautiful poetry
      • Books 1-12 // like the Odyssey of Homer (thus he is compared to him)
      • Books 13-24 // Iliad of Homer (again... likehomer)
      • theme = Rome’s fate/destiny
      • Virgil wanted it burned at his death, but Augustus liked it
  • Horace
    • (65 BC – 8 BC)
    • freedman's son
    • introduced to Maecenas by Vergil
    • lyric, light poetry
    • hymn for secular games

    Odes

    (light poetry on life, love, money, virtue, wine and beauty) includes many carpe diem themes

    Epodes

    (bitter, pessimistic poems) Big contrast from Odes.

    Satires

    (makes fun of life in Rome) - clever turns of phrase - only original literary form of Romans

    Epistles

    sermons on morals, religion and philosophy)

    Art of Poetry

    (principles for writing poetry and tragedy) - basis for Alexander Pope’s Essay on Literary Criticism in the 18th century

  • PROPERTIUS
    • (50 BC – 2 BC)
    • "annoying to a lot of people"
    • poetry for intellectuals
    • writer of elegy (his joys and pains)
    • affair with Cynthia (a great beauty) her rages, suspicions and infidelities drive him away
    • very scholarly, but his habit of going off into tangents of obscure Greek myths (distracts from his poetry) poetry as a game for intellectuals
  • OVID
    • (43 BC – 17 AD)
    • popular poet (most sensual and sophisticated of elegists)
    • Art of Love (pornographic handbook which explains all the known aspects of the "heterosexual experience", from rape to incest
    • very sexual poems, and gets in trouble for it (Julia (Augustus' daughter)was one of his big fans)
    • Metamorphoses (250 stories of Greek myths and creation myths, some of which were pornographic)
    • Fasti (chief religious festivals of Rome)
    • ran afoul of Augustus (involved with Julia?) - exiled to Black Sea(8 - 18 AD)
• THE SILVER AGE OF IMPERIAL LITERATURE
  • General Info
    • Follows after Caligulas time
    • 1st c. AD (SILVER AGE) - covers the reigns of Claudius and Nero
  • PETRONIUS
    • (27 AD – 66 AD)
    • "arbitrator of social graces" at Nero’s court
    • Satyricon (parody the morals of the time)
      • adventures of three young (depraved) freedmen as they tour the taverns and brothels of southern Italian port towns
      • Encolpius seeks aid of Priapus
      • Trimalchio's dinner(T's home based on Golden House of Nero)
  • SENECA
    • (4 BC – 65 AD)
    • Another one of the 'inner circle' ... as it were
    • Nero's mentor
    • millionaire in banking and politics
    • Stoic philosopher, tries to bring out greatness of stoicism
    • letters, essays, Natural Questions, satires, and Stoic plays
    • pithy sentiments and clever turns of phrase
    • Moral guidance for life
  • LUCAN
    • (39 AD – 65 AD)
    • Seneca’s nephew
    • epic poet
    • wrote on the Civil War (the Pharsallia)
      • violent and pessimistic epic poem of Caesar and Pompey
      • very pro-Republic and hostile to Caesar
    • put to death for opposing Nero - following the Conspiracy of Piso in 65 AD, Petronius, Seneca and Lucan were forced to commit suicide(slit wrists) by Nero in 66 AD
  • MARTIAL
    • (40 AD – 102 AD)
    • Spanish poet and satirist
    • like colbert report/daily show
    • Spectacles (attacked the shams and vices of people from all walks of life)
    • Epigrams (sharp and, often, indecent short poems)
    • his sharp and biting wit made him a popular source of entertainment at dinner parties
    • good commentary on daily life
    • Pliny stated that his poems "reflected life like a mirror"
    • Selections from Martial’s Epigrams:

      On Doctors:
      
      "I felt a little ill and called Dr. Symmachus.
      Well, you came, Symmachus, but you brought 100 medical students with you.
      One hundred ice-cold hands poked and jabbed me.
      I didn't have a fever, Symmachus, when I called you -but now I do."
      — Book V, No. 9

      "You say to me, Cerylus, that my writings are crude. It's true.
      But that's only because I write about you." — Book I, No. 67

      "Eat lettuce and soft apples:For you, Phoebus, have the harsh face of a defecating man."
      — Book III, No. 89

• 2nd c. AD Silver Age Authors
  • PLINY THE YOUNGER
    • (63 AD – 113 AD)
    • Senator and Governor of Bithynia
    • today he'd be the person who would always be writing good letters to papers today
    • great letter writer - wrote letters to be published(short and polished style, covering one topic)
    • Panegyric (praise of Trajan) - uses all of the rhetorical tricks of the trade to contrast Domitian with Trajan
    • Wrote to Trajan about the problem with Christians
    • Letters (correspondence as Governor of Bithynia)
      • letters to Trajan concerning problems/concerns
      • shows his nobility and sharp eye for detail
  • TACITUS
    • (56 AD – 117 AD)
    • Roman Senator & outstanding prose historian
    • Lived through the reigns of Nero, Galba, Otho, Vitellius, Vespasian, Titus, Domitian, Nerva & Trajan
    • Writings cover the period from 14 AD – 96 AD
    • very perceptive, based on his own practical experience
      • wished to show the dignity and moral events of history
      • he did not chronicle petty events, rumours or gossip
    • lived through Domitian’s purges, so his works are more pessimistic as compared to Livy’s optimism
    • Histories (Flavian period)
    • Agricola (biography of a famous general) - married his daughter in 77 AD
    • Annals (Augustus - Nero); perceptive historian
    • Germania (contrasts nobility of barbarians to the corruption of Rome
    • He sees nobility in the German culture, and says "look, we're stabbing eachother in the back"
    • also sees the honesty and nobility of the common man vs. the corruption and cowardice of Rome’s leaders - very biased against the Dynastic system
  • SUETONIUS
    • (71 AD -135 AD)
    • National Enquirer of roman history
    • professional scholar and civil servant under Hadrian
    • Biographies of the 12 Caesars (from Julius Caesar to Domitian)
      • smut (simple, gossipy and to the point, with lots of room for rumours and little time for analysis of inconsistencies)
    • however, he is the first "Historian" to quote sources, phrases and passages directly in both Latin and Greek
  • JUVENAL
    • (55 AD – 127 AD)
    • last great Roman satirist
      • great master of vocabulary, hexameter and clever phrases
      • moralist, but often lost in his bitterness
    • Satires (attacks on nearly everything!) - cannot help to write satires of corruption in Rome
    • Many of his sayings have become part of modern speech, such as "bread and circuses" and "who will guard the guards themselves?"
    • only make fun of the dead, since too dangerous to make fun of the living - forgot his own rules and later exiled by Domitian for satirizing a court favourite
  • COMMON TRENDS
    • They all think Rome is too big, we've lost honour
• THE ROMAN CALENDAR
  • Day: sunrise to sunset, divided into 12 hours
    • midday in summer is the 7th hour
    • Most people work until the 7th hour
    • 8th hour you exercise, go to baths
    • the 8th hour is 1:30 pm
  • Night: sunset to sunrise, divided into 4 watches
  • hours & watches varied in length at different times of year
  • timekeeping: originally by observing sun and moon
    • sundial (3rd c. BC)
    • water clock used in lawcourts, only so much time to make your case
  • Republican calendar: lunar month (29 days); no weeks
    • 1st day = Kalends, 5th = Nones, 13th = Ides . -Exceptions:

    • "In March, July, October, May
      The Ides are on the 15th day,
      The Nones the 7th; but all besides
      Have 2 days less for Nones & Ides"
      

  • lunar year 11 days too short, so extra months inserted by priests at their will (based on agrarian calendar)
  • Caesar's calendar: year of 365 1 /4 days devised by the Egyptian astronomer Sosigenes (still used today) only slightly modified by Pope Gregory XIII in 1582
  • calendar once began in March (December = 10th month)
    • 153 BC year begins in January to allow consuls to get to provinces
    • July=Julius Caesar (was once Quintilis, the "Fifth")
    • August+Augustus (was once Sextilis, the "Sixth")
    • other months kept old names
  • unlucky days for marriage, or otherwise, e.g. anniversaries of disasters; no business
  • market day every 8 days (different day in each town)
  • 2nd c. AD: introduction of week days named after planets (Saturn, Sun, Moon Mars, Mercury, Jupiter & Venus
  • years named after consuls, or numbered from foundation of Rome in 753 BC (AUC = ab urbe condita)
• THE IMPERIAL CULT
  • Emperor seen as successor to Alexander and other god-kings
    • in west, only deceased and deified rulers worshipped
    • more likely to be worshipped seriously in the east where a strong god-king tradition had existed
  • Augustus organizes Imperial Cult for worship of Julius Caesar (temples, festivals, priesthoods)
    • You can worship anything you want, so long as you worship the Imperial Cult
    • begins the tradition
    • freedmen active in Cult
  • Living emperor is not worshipped, only his genius (ideas) (exceptions: Caligula, Domitian, Commodus)
  • Tradition to deify deceased emperors, but not always carried out
    • Claudius and Hadrian deified only because successor insisted
    • Apocolocyntosis ("pumpkinification" of Claudius): by Seneca?
    • "bad" emperors not deified after death (Tiberius, Nero, etc.)
    • others damned (ie Domitian & Commodus) by Senatorial decree and their memory erased (Damnatio memoriae)
  • Empresses can also be deified (e.g. Livia/Augustus, Faustina/Antoninus Pius)

Day X

• MYSTERY CULT RELIGIONS
  • MYSTERY CULT RELIGIONS
    • Traditional State religions & Imperial cult too impersonal to satisfy needs of the individual
    • Common people turn to exciting Eastern religions - upper classes turn to philosophy
    • Mystery religions offered purification, monotheism, communion, life after death
      • secret rites & levels of initiation
    • People are part of this massive empire, they want to get back to something personal
    • Cults come from eastern Mediterranean (exotic); often involve ecstasy (dancing, intoxication, worse?)
  • GREEK/HELLENISTIC CULTS

    grain goddess Demeter

    (Eleusinian mysteries)

    wine god Bacchus

    (fertility, free from inhibitions; banned 186 BC)

    Cybele

    (Asian mother goddess): brings boyfriend Attis back to life (resurrection).

    • fertility goddess, protectress (wears walled crown), wild animals(lion attendants), cures and oracles
    • wild ecstatic state (feel no pain)
    • cult reaches Rome in 2nd Punic war
    • later patronized by Claudius (priesthoods opened)

    Cybele Cult

    preists (orig. eastern) could be roman but must castrate selves, run thorugh Rome and toss genitals at a house. Festival: fasting, purification, called it taurobolium, popular with women.

  • THE CULT OF ISIS
    • Isis (Egyptian saviour goddess) - puts husband Osiris back together (from the dead), transformed from egyptian to roman thorugh time
    • priests = Egyptian. Use Nile water, street parade, drama, penitents, festivals, banquets, interpretation of dreams
    • ideal mother (nurses son Horus) - cult popular among women
    • Apuleius’ Golden Ass (2nd c.) describes initiation (ecstacy and flagellation)
    • Serapis another similar god (sky/healing god) - state-of-the-art temple at Alexandria
  • THE CULT OF MITHRAS
    • One of big three religions
    • Mithras (Asian/Persian god of light, truth, and good god)
      • battles forces of darkness
      • known as "Lord of Light", God of Truth", "Saviour from Death", "Giver of Bliss", "Warrior" and "Victorious"
    • comes to Rome in the later half of the 1st c. AD
    • followers must be tough, disciplined; popular with army, merchants and all social classes
    • bull-slaying scene, reproduced in underground shrines: meaning?
    • link to astronomy
    • temples built in caves or built to look like caves
    • belief in prosperity and an afterlife
  • Sol Invictus Cult
    • One of big three religions
    • Sol Invictus("Sun Unconquered")
      • Sun God cult
    • conical black stone is Syrian cult image
    • weird rites (perversions?)
      • drums, cymbols and anthems sung by women
      • rites include baptism and ceremonial meal
      • rites often linked to Mithraism
  • Christianity
    • One of big three religions
    • Christianity (Jewish Palestinian carpenter's son, claimed to be son of Yahweh)
    • He said that anybody who wants to believe this, is welcomed to. This seperated it from the others
    • 30 AD crucified by Pontius Pilate (prefect)
      • came back to life after death (reign of Tiberius)
    • met underground in catacombs, and due to language used they were misunderstood, ex: brothers and sisters, and 'drink his blood'
    • promote love, forgiveness of sins, equality, and everlasting life, purification, community, communion
      • cult was open to everyone (and so unpopular with mainstream Judaism of the time)
      • attracted the poor, slaves, cripples, women, and society’s outcasts at first
      • spread by travels of early disciples
  • Christian Persecutions
    • Christianity denied emperor's divinity, thus was treasonous
    • Rites misunderstood - secret meetings in catacombs, bird and fish secret symbols, murder, cannibalism, incest
    • various persecutions beginning in 64 AD under Nero
    • "Alexemenos prays to his god" - making fun of a painting of christ with the head of a donkey, on the cross
  • Triumph of Christianity
    • Constantine’s Role in the Growth of Christianity - he was a sun worshiper.
    • 312 AD wins battle of milvian bridge with diving
    • "In Hov Signo Vincas" = "In this sign you will conquer"
    • Constantine first to use "Chi-rho" symbols
    • Christianity legalized by emperor Constantine (313) in the "Edict of Milan". Said "you can be one" not you must be one
    • 321 AD Sunday a legal holiday (brilliant move - sunday is Zodiac, Sabbath, and the 'Sun' god thingy)
    • 325 AD Council of Micaea - to solidify the christian thinking. The Micaea creed is the document, and it takes off from here.
    • 380 AD Emperor Theodosias the Great makes it the official State religion and bans paganism
      • Christians then begin to persecute pagans!
      • Destroy the pagan books, and is now considered a big loss of material today
      • take what is familiar (& pagan) and make it Christian to explain their theology
    • Christianity combined the strengths of
      • Greek Philosophy…
      • Roman Administration…
      • and the Jewish faith (one God). Faith being a life choice. Not a one day a week thing
    • Pontifex Maximus becomes the Pontif becomes the Pope
• IMPERIAL ART AND ARCHITECTURE
  • General
    • Combine Etruscan, Greek and Oriental ideas (eclectic in all things)
    • Reflects the values and ideals of a culture
    • Also a way to show off wealth and power
  • Sculpture
    • intimately linked with Roman funerary practice
      • busts often displayed in homes or at funerals
      • portraiture both idealistic and realistic
    • Glorification of the Emperor begins with Augustus
    • Begins to decay in late 2nd century
      • anatomy not as well done
      • Rome is too busy, and perhaps just a general decay in talent
      • expressions more serious and troubled (art imitating life?)
    • can be huge (head of statue of Constantine is 2.5 m tall alone!) - reflect Eastern god-like awe
    • Romans could not work the stone as well as the Greeks. Greeks were free standing, Rome would often lean against something.
    • Roman copies of Greek originals are supported by a tree stump, flowing robes or other small attachment at the base of the legs
    • Cameos common and popular
  • Mural Painting
    • Romans really excelled at this
    • Found on walls, canvas and ceilings
    • Roman artists were renowned for their renditions of social or leisure events, mythological themes, and nature scenes and landscapes
    • "Pompeiian" style most popular
    • House of the Mysteries in Pompeii
      • distance, space, light, expression and perspective are shown in great detail
      • painting material was very colourful and realistic
    • Often paint outdoor scenes as if looking through a window
    • Most interior Roman painting has maintained its colours
  • Portrait Painting
    • An area where the Romans excelled in art (original?)
      • usually painted on canvas or wood
      • facial features are distinct and portray the personality of the subject (lady from Egypt with stylus)
      • captures the true spirit of the subject
      • realistic vs idealistic
    • Clothing is very detailed, with folds and creases appearing quite realistic
    • Colours used for the subject are soft and subtle, while the background is full of vibrancy
    • Portraits of the upper classes are also found on glass medallions, with a blue background, and gold and white outline painting
    • Reached its zenith under the Flavian Emperors (late 1st century AD)
  • Roman Mosaics
    • Many many of them in Pompeii
    • Located mostly on floors
    • Labour intensive & expensive
    • Geometric or abstract patterns with a two-dimensional design
      • commonly used materials were marble, glass paste and naturals shells
      • pebbles used were mostly black and white
      • black silhouettes with white outlining was popular
      • usually contained figures of humans, animas, and mythological figures, all contained within a floral-type border
    • Were placed in houses like carpets, for example, in the middle of rooms or near doors
    • Caveat Canum ("Beware of Dog") in front of door in Pompeii
  • The Roman Forum
    • Centre of city life (// Greek agora)
    • Shops, statues, meeting places, public speaking podiums
    • Various additions built over the centuries
      • Forum of Caesar (46 BC)
      • Forum of Augustus (2 AD)
      • Each person added their own to it
  • Basilica
    • Rectangular, covered building
    • Courts, businesses and social gatherings
    • Built to be seen from the inside (opposite to Greek designs)
    • Early Christian churches were converted basilicas, or based on their design
• Roman Temples
  • The Roman Baths
    • Combined bath, library, gymnasium and community centre - enclosed gardens - about a penny to enter them
    • Rrooms heated through the flow of warm air through the flues in the wall
      • frigidarium (cold rooms)
      • tepidarium (warm heat)
      • laconia (sweat baths)
    • Pompeii’s bath (75 BC) an early example
    • Baths of Caracalla (217 AD) in Rome had libraries, lecture halls, gymnasiums, pools, lounges and vast vaulted public spaces decorated in statues, mosaics, stuccos and paintings
      • held 1,600 bathers in marble-lined pools
    • By the middle of the 4th century AD there were 952 operating bath facilities in Rome
  • Circuses
    • Huge race tracks
      • elongated rectangles, curved at one end
      • spina (spine) runs down the middle of the track (horses run around)
    • Rome’s Circus Maximus is 2,000 feet long and hold ½ million spectators
  • The Roman Amphitheatre
    • Semicircular
    • Much use of arch and concrete
  • Colosseum, in Rome, begun by the Emperor Vespasian and opened by his son, the Emperor Titus, in 80 AD
    • tiers of seats surround arena
    • arena ("sand") in the centre, Arena is the term for sand. measuring 500 x 620 feet
    • rooms, passageways, and elevators beneath arena floor
    • 4 stories tall, decorated in statues on the outside
    • partial retractable canopy on top
    • hold 45,000 spectators
    • buy a seat
    • can be emptied in 10 minutes
  • Theatres
    • Oval amphitheatre with a semi-circular stage
    • Built on Greek models from southern Italy an across the eastern Empire
    • Intricate backdrops were contributed under the Empire
    • Stage and seating area
    • Theatre of Pompey (55 BC)
    • Theatre at Bosra could seat 15,000 & add 6,000 standing
  • Arches
    • Victorious sculpture
    • placed in a place where people had to go through it, intersections, between walls, buildings
    • Arch of Titus in Rome commemorates the capture of Jerusalem after the Jewish Revolt in 71 AD
    • Arch of Constantine (315 AD) covered in sculpture from earlier monuments of Trajan, Hadrian and Marcus Aurelius
      • round medallions on it from Hadrian’s reign
      • earlier sculpture re-worked to look like Constantine
  • Columns
    • Popular commemorative sculpture
    • Trajan’s Column (113 AD)
      • tells the story of the Dacian War in sculpture
      • spiral band of relief winds up the column (3 ½ feet tall and 800 feet long)
      • reads like a scroll
      • 2,500 figures on it
      • Finer sculpted figures near the bottom
      • painted, gilded and metal work
  • Pantheon
    • Built by the Emperor Hadrian (117-138 AD)
      • "House of all Gods"
    • Cylindrical, drum-shaped building, capped by huge dome and entered through a deep porch with Corinthian columns
    • Top of dome is 110 feet tall (= to the distance of the diameter of the drum)
      • many square recesses in inside of roof to hold statues of deities (represents the heavens)
      • small oculus (eye) opening in top of dome to let in light (represents the sun)
    • Originally roof gilded in gold!
  • Aqueducts
    • Water from mountain streams could be carried from 40 miles away using gravitational flow to reservoirs near cities
    • Channels in arches were lined with hard, water-proof cement
    • Often built into bridges and supported by arches
    • Water then went through smaller pipes made of lead, wood or terra cotta, into fountains, houses or public baths
    • 1st century AD Rome had a population of 1 million - aqueducts provided 455 L of fresh water/person/day
    • Rich have running water on main floor, in kitchen and lavatory
    • Many public fountains (some still used today)
  • Roman Roads
    • 4.5 m wide, with a 120 cm foundation
    • 85,000 km of roads built
    • 1 Roman mile = 1,000 paces
    • "Mile" comes from the Latin "milia passuum" ("one thousand of paces"), which was approximately 1620 yards, 1480 meters
    • each mile marked by a 2-metre tall pillar, called a Milestone (miliarium)
    • Most roads originally built by "Marius’ Mules"
• ROMAN HOUSING AND FURNITURE
  • The Roman house (domus):
    • rich could have running water
    • Very bright and airy homes
    • All decoration on the inside
    • façade is plain and whitewashed
    • Defintions

      domus

      The Roman House

      compluvium

      opening in roof to let in light and rain

      impluvium

      collects rainwater from compluvium

      atrium

      central living room surrounded by other rooms

      hortus

      small garden furthest away from the front door

      lararium

      shrine to household gods

      fauces

      entrance passage

      tablinum

      passage room

      triclinium

      dining room

      cubiculum

      bedroom

      peristylium

      elaborate colonnaded garden

      hypocaust

      heating system beneath floor

      tabernae

      shops - in front rooms facing the street (in wealthier homes)

  • Roman Apartments
    • Insulae/"islands" (apartment blocks) - built in grid blocks
    • Stone main floor (shops or expensive apartments) - wood and stone "filler" upper floors
    • Could have central courtyard (air & light)
    • No limit to occupancy
    • Cook on open braziers (fire hazard)
    • Problem with disrepair
    • Augustus limits height to 21 m (69 feet)
    • 350 AD 1,790 private homes and 46, 602 insulae
  • Roman Furniture - there wasn't a lot

    sella

    backless arm-chair

    cathedra

    high-backed ladies' chair

    Cubile

    bed - of simple frame, leather webbing and thin mattress stuffed with straw or wool

    Arca

    chest for blankets or clothes

    Lasanum

    chamber pot

• LIFE AT ROME
  • LIFE AT ROME
  • (sources: Horace, Juvenal, Martial)
  • Martial describes Rome as noisy, smelly, crowded, hot & foul!
  • Flooding of the Tiber (smell, mess, health & safety hazard)
  • Campus Martius ("field of Mars")
  • Cloaca Maxima (central sewer)
  • air pollution and fire hazards (cooking over open fire, fires, candles, bad air days)
  • overcrowding: insulae (apartment blocks) often collapse
  • unsafe streets: contrast Pompeii, Antioch
  • Forum (market and business centre)
  • Basilica (meeting hall, law court)
• Literature: On Life in Rome

  Novius is my neighbour – I can lean out the window and touch him by hand.
  
  (Martial I, 86, 1-2)

  He observed that every day in Rome buildings caught fire, or collapsed, because they were so large and close to each other.
  
  (Plutarch, Crassus, III)

  Two of the tabernae have fallen down, and the walls of the others have all cracked: my tenants are gone – and the mice as well!
  
  (Cicero, ad AttXIV, 9.1)

  Literature: On Life in Rome - "Beware The Barbers"

  Those scars you see on my chin, like the marks on some old boxer’s face, were not made by my angry wife in one of her tempers, but by the cursed hand and blade of Antiochus. The he-goat is the only beast with any sense – he wears a beard to escape Antiochus.
  
  Martial, Epigrams, 11.84)

  The Daily Routine in Rome, According to Martial (Epigrams, 4.8)

  The first and second hours wear out the
  Clients at their morning salutation.
  The third hour puts the hoarse barristers
  Through their paces:
  Rome’s varied businesses last right
  Through the fifth hour:
  The sixth hour gives the exhausted time
  To rest, until
  The seventh hour wakes them up again.
  From the eighth to the ninth is enough
  For the well-greased wrestlers:
  The ninth hour invites us to dent the
  Cushions on the dinner-couches,
  But the tenth – that is the time for my
  Poems.

Day XI

Slides are available for download.

• Roman Sexual Life
  • Inside Marriage
    • In early Rome, sex, by tradition was only done in marriage
    • Morality, Dignity
    • marriage contract, legitimate heirs
    • economic concerns
    • political relations
    • "Not plow in another man's field" old conservative, agragian values
    • All this said, they still had prostitutes
  • 2nd Century B.C.
    • saw an influx in Greeg Values, and foreign slaves. Much more liberal ideas began.
    • Immorality in the writings of
      • Catullus: affairs he had with people, etc.
      • Ovids "Art of Love"
      • Use of 'dirty' words by Catullus and Martial
      • ex: "Mentula" (prick) and "the big asparagus"
  • Sexual Rules
    1. Only with spouse
    2. Only at night
    3. Woman mustn't enjoy it (only prostitutes and low-class women do)
  • Alternative Lifestyles
    • Not adultry if man has affair with single women, but it is with a married lady
    • bisexual males: man must not be passive (only male prostitutes & slaves may be passive in sex)
    • penalty for seducing freeborn boys (exile). Sex is very much a power thing, and they don't want men to be made less manly
    • Juvenal's 2nd satire: was on gay men. They act, dress as women, take passive role in sex, some born with this "disease", others chose it
    • Oral sex: okay between men, not with women
    • Female homosexuality was rarely mentioned
  • Ovid on sex
    • Ovid's positions for lovemaking
    • Ovid's suggestion for orgasm
    • Falling in love was considered shameful, since marriage wasn't love
      • Turned men into womens slaves
      • insane (madly in love)
      • Roman literature makes fun of men who fall in love with prostitues and stalk them
      • Lower classes probably felt differently about falling in love
  • Concubines and Prostitutes
    • Concubine : non-slave woman kept by married man
    • Prostitutes : slaves (male & female) found in public places or in brothels
    • Lupanar : brothel, at Pomepeii
    • Prostitutes calls for roadside sex (cubicle with a curtain) (9 in Pompeii)
    • Prostitutesmust be registered, wear toga (usually bright blue). Registered with, and monitored by, the city
  • Sex & Religion
    • Sex and religion (fertility): phalluses
    • tintinnabula (phalluses with bells) phallic broze windchimes
    • Priapus (fertility god with hugephallus (or a misshapen body)
      • Child of Dionysus and Aphrodite (or a nymph)
      • ass sacrifice (embodiment of lust and stupidity)
      • not taken seriously
      • wooden statues put in garden as a combination guardian and scarecrow
    • Masturbation acceptable (but only indoors) until the rise of christianity
• Roman Imperialism
  • Early Republic
    • Rome did not at first have imperial ambitions
      • acquires territoy haphazardly as result of success in wars
      • struggle against neighbours, in which Roman army usually wins (Divide and Rule)
      • leads to occupation of Italy; colonies set up for security and to settle surplus population
    • 3rd Century BC Rome now in control of Italy
      • comes into conflict with Carthage (1st punic war)
      • drives Carthaginians out of sicily
      • treaty gives Sicily to Rome (first Roman province)
    • Provincia : originally meant "Task" or "responsibility" of magistrate. Eventually meant province
  • Middle Republic
    • 2nd Punic war : Rome captures Spain
      • turns it into a province to keep Carthaginians from returning
      • also rich silver mines, timber, and soldiers
      • also overruns Macedonia which had supported Hannibal
    • 3rd Punic War : Africa itself becomes a Roman province
    • 1st century BC Rome is now actively expanding its borders
      • Deliberate rather than accidental imperialism
      • Ally to a weak state and becomes its "protector" against its stronger neighbours
      • Diplomatic continuation of the concept of the Patron-Client relationship
      • Often unscrupulous and meant to give Rome the image of being "the good guy" / justified
  • Late Republic
    • Pompey's conquest in the eastern Mediterranean (grid plan conquest)
    • Caesar's conquest of Gaul and raids on Britain. Use of client kingdoms as buffer states
    • Under Augustus, rome establishes "Natural" boundaries
      • Antlantic Ocean on the west
      • Rhine-Danube on north
      • Sahara and Syrian deserts on the south and east
      • August urges Tiberius not to expand
  • The Empire
    • Changing concept of imperium. Originally command and authority, later power and domination ("empire")
    • Rome needs conquests for money, slaves, raw material and political stability
    • Rome is brought up on a diet of conquest
    • Augustus has greater imperium then all other provincial governors
    • Augustus policy expressed in Vergil's Aeneid : "To Rule nations by imperium, to add civilization to peace, to spare the submissive and 'war down' the proud"
    • Pax Romana : "The Roman Peace" during the time of Augustus
    • Empire reaches its greatest limits under Trajan
    • Hadrian retreats to defensive boundaries (Rhine, Danube, Hadrian's wall in Britian)
• The Roman Army
  • The first Modern Military Force
    • Strong army/legion = secret to Rome's success, reflects the Roman vitues
    • In the early Republic it was composed to citizens
      • property requirements scraped by Marius
      • Later, provincials join
    • Legionaries must be citizens
      • present self to recruiting officers (for an interview) with a letter of introduction from father, local official, and family patron
      • Title for interview was "Probatio"
      • usually age 16-18
      • check citizenship, health and height requirements 5-8 pr 5-9 ( but that was flexible as need prevailed )
      • numeracy and literacy also desireable assets
    • The new recruit
      • Vegetius (Historian) tells of preference for recruits from certain professions (ie smiths, wagon-makers, butchers and huntsmen) versus others (those associated with women's occupations, like weavers, confectioners, or even fisherman)
      • Legions were a self contained unit. Those with easily transferable skills were prefered
      • some potential recruites cut off some of their fingers in order to avoid service
      • authorities decided to accept two mutilated men in place of one healthy one
      • early empire, recruits swore an oath (the sacramentum) and joined their unit
      • later Empire, could be tattooed, or even branded
      • Enlist for a minimum 20 years service
      • Until the 3rd century, could not marry
    • 1st Century A.D. Legion Organization
      • Highly organized, everyone has a place, and role. In battle, everyone knows their job
      • Legion divided into 10 cohorts. Each cohort was divided into 6 centuries, with 80 men in each = 480 men total.
      • Each century (80) was divided into 10 contubernium which were tent parties that shared a tent, a mule, and a cooking pot
      • In practise, the first cohort was double sized
      • 120 Cavalrymen (divided into 4 Turma of 30 men each) attached to each legions
      • With the addition of messenger, administrative and clerical staff, a legion consisted of about 5,400 men
      • like most military units throughout history, it was rarely up to full strength
    • Legion Command Structure
      • Lead by example. Often military and political men out to make a name for themselves
      • 6 miliary tribunes (staff officers) were sent by Rome to assist the Legate

      legate

      commands each legion

      Senior Centurion

      like today's Sergeant-Major was the second in command to the Legate.

      Primus Pilus

      another name for the Senior Centurion. First spear - and commanded the First Cohort

      Aquilifer

      carried the legions eagle standard. A golden eagle, the symbol of Rome. It was a huge pole with the eagle on top

      Imagifer

      carried the image of the Emperor on a large pole

      centurion

      commands each century

      Cornicen

      musician

      Signifier

      the century's standard bearer

      Optio

      the second in command to century

      Tesserarius

      Third in command to the century

      Praefectus Castrorum

      in charde of organizaing the legions camp. Rode ahead about 24 miles each day and steaked out the new camp

      Decurion

      In command of a Turma of 30 cavalrymen of the Equites Legion (Legion of Calvary)

    • Artillery and Auxiliary Troops

      Scorpio

      An arrow shooting artillery piece, attaced to each century (thus 60 of these per legion)

      Onager

      A stone throwing artillery piece, attached to each cohort (10 per legion)

      Auxilia

      Latin for helpers

      Auxiliaries

      Non-citizens served as slingers, javeline throwers, archers, scouts and cavalry

      Barbarians

      People who fought in their native fashion. Numidian light cavalry, Cretan Archers, Balaric slingers

      25

      the number of years Auxiliary troops served befor retirement and granted citizenship

    • Size of Army
      • 28 legions in 1st Century A.D. (later 35)
      • During Constantine the Great (4th Century) there were 500,000 soldiers in service
      • Conscription was rarely needed in early army, as it was a way to become a citizen
      • By mid 4th century mercenaries and barbarians were recruited in large numbers to make up for manpower shortages
      • Romans try to buy their way out of service, Legions lose size, and become more mobile. Armoured Calvary, and horse archers
    • Army Life
      • Iron discipline is the key to success
      • They trained with double weight weapons so that they would be fast during battle
      • bribed centurion to get out of bad duties like cleaning the latrine
      • Long marches, usually 24 miles a day
      • No Wife, though they often were followed by the wives
      • Spartan diet, collected what they could for extra along the way
      • Were given the chance to learn a trade while in the military so that they would be skilled to retire on
    • Punishment
      • Varied based on offense, from food rationing to death
      • Cowardice was considered on of the worst things
      • For a minor offense: public betaing, food rationing, flogging
      • Serious offenses: fines, loss of rank, dishonourable discharge, or execultion
      • Decimation Fall asleep on guard duty = death from yur cohort
    • Rewards
      • High rewards for acts of bravery
      • Civic crown (of oak leaves) was worn if you saved the ilfe of another citizen
      • Legionary Soldiers and noncommissioned officers could recieve
        • Monetary bonuses
        • booty and spoils from victory
        • various decorations such as gold mecklet (torques) and armband (armilla)
      • Centurion and Senior Officers could recivee
        • The "Mural Crown" (Corona Mrali) given to the first man over the walls of a besieged city
        • The "Seige Crown" (corono obsidionalis) was the highest military award, awarded to officer responsible for delivering a besieged
    • Army Life
      • A legionary corries 2, 6 foot long javelins with soft points (Pilum). The pilum broke off creating an L shape when hitting their target, rendering useless to be thrown back
      • (Gladius) Short thrusting sword
      • (Scutum) Curved rectangular sheild made of wood bound in leather
      • metal helmet and armour
      • Bare legs, except in cold climates. They were considered manly
      • (Marius Mules) were people who carried a lot of stuff, like entrenching and road construction tools (90 lbs)
      • Auxilia usually carried lighter weapons and armour
      • (testudo) roman for Tortoise. A formation which used shield to make a shell looking structure
    • The Praetorian Guard
      • 9 cohorts x 1000 men ( all italian)
      • Commanded by Praetorian Prefect
      • Escort emperor, guarded palace
      • The most inner bodyguards were large Germans, bigger than the average Roman
      • They were the only soldiers in Rome
    • Paramilitary Forces in Rome
      • Urban Cohorts (Roman city police) 3 x 1000 men, all under the City Prefect
      • Vigiles (watchmen, firemen) 7 x 1000 men, all ex-slaves
    • The Roman Navy
      • First developed a navy during the 1st Punic War, used captured Carthaginian ships as models
      • by the 1st Century AD, the Mediterranean was described as a "Roman Lake"
      • Navy was divided into Classes (Fleets) each commanded by a Praefectus Classis (Fleet Commander)
      • Each ship was commanded by a Trierarchus (captain), who held the rank of Centurion
      • Their role was troop transport, escort of grain ships, policing the sea, or major rivers
      • Two main naval bases (Misenum, Ravenna)
      • Other squadrons were placed elsewhere (Rhine, Danube, etc)
    • The Roman Sailor
      • Sailors can be non-citizens (often Egyptian)
      • Classiarii (Marines) were also on board, equipped with lighter equipment like Auixlia
      • Sailor's tunics and ship's sails were pale blue colour (Camoflage?)

Lecture XII

Slides are available for download.

• THE LATE EMPIRE : THE "DECLINE AND FALL" OF ROME (AD 235-476)
  • "Barracks Emperors" (235-284)
  • This period marked the beginning of the end for Rome
    • A number of ambitious men in fear of other ambitious men
    • most Emperors were short-lived and died violently
    • massive financial (can't pay their bills) and military troubles
    • Cities and provinces are going bankrupt
    • high, unfair taxes. The rich don't pay a lot of tax
    • rampant inflation
    • cities go bankrupt, and get into incredible debt
    • robber bands on the rise, where people live together as a group of plunderers and looters
    • constant civil wars and plots to take power
    • At some points mini-commerces are set up within Gaul, because the army is at the frontiers
    • plagues and famines
    • barbarian invasions
  • Maximinus the Thracian (235-238) (important)
    • Huge ignorant peasant. First barbarian 'mercenary' to become emperor. Never set foot in Rome
    • Proclaimed by the Pannonian legions
    • Murdered Emperor Alexander Severus and his mother
    • An ignorant peasant of tremendous size and strength
    • reportedly drank 46 pints of wine and 40 pounds of meat daily!
    • 1st "barbarian" (a Goth) Emperor, and 1st Emperor to never set foot in Rome
    • Eventually lynched by his own troops when he was unable to pay them
  • Pupienus and Balbinus (238)
    • elderly Senators, who wanted everyone to just co-operate and get along
    • murdered by troops after two months
    • Killed because they didn't pay their bills
    • Adobt Gordian the IIIrd as co-emperor
  • Gordian III (238-244) (important)
    • This starts a series of "puppet emperors", while Praetorian Prefect running the show
    • 13 year old co-emperor with Pupienus and Balbinus
    • Praetorian Prefect (Philip the Arab) acts as regent
    • Goths and Persians invade
    • murdered when he gave troops choice of either "Philip or me!"
  • Philip the Arab (244-249)
    • Arab sheik from Jordan
    • was Gordian IIIs advisor, commander in chief
    • Fought Goths, killed after 5 years
    • murdered in civil war
  • Decius (249-251)
    • a good man who could have been a great emperor
    • killed in battle with the Goths (unusual!)
    • Being killed in battle was very unusual for an emperor
  • Hostilianus (June-July 251)
    • son of Decius
    • Adopted son of Gallus
    • died of plague
  • Gallus (251-253)
    • proclaimed by troops of Lower Moesia
    • murdered by mutinous troops
  • Aemilianus (253)
    • murdered by mutinous troops
  • Valerian I (253-260)
    • He was tragic, run eastern side of Roman Empire
    • Persian kingdom was a major enemy of Rome for a long time
    • ran the Eastern Roman Empire
    • captured by Persian King Shapur I
    • used as a human mounting-block for his horse
    • on his death, the skin was flayed from his body, dyed with vermilion, and hung in a Persian temple!
  • Gallienus (253-268) (important)
    • son and co-Emperor with Valerian I
    • ran the Western Roman Empire
    • faced invasions by the Franks, Goths, Saxons, Jutes and Persians
    • fought off 18 rebellions against him, in 15 years!
    • created a mobile, elite, central reserve army to rush to trouble spots
    • murdered by jealous staff officers
    • Waits for enemy to loot a town, then kills the enemy and uses the plunder as pay for army
  • Claudius II (268-270)
    • staff officer of Gallienus
    • defeated Germans and Goths
    • died of plague
    • invasions by Franks, Goths, Persians, etc.
  • Aurelian (270-275)(important)
    • Tough emperor, from Ugoslavia
    • Illyrian Emperor from the Balkans
    • very harsh disciplinarian, whose nick-name was Manu ad ferrum ("Hand on Steel)
    • both Gaul and Palmyra separate from the Empire
    • Palmyra was a trade city on the frontier
    • both defeated, as were the Goths
    • builds a new defensive wall around Rome
    • murdered by mistake by Praetorian Guard Officers(thought he had a "hit list")
  • Claudius Tacitus (275-276)
    • a Senator in his mid-seventies!
    • murdered after six months
  • Florianus (276)
    • half-brother of Tacitus who assumed the throne
    • murdered by the army
  • Probus (276-282)
    • another excellent Illyrian General from Ugoslavia
    • defeats the Franks, Germans, Burgundians and Vandals
    • murdered by mutinous troops
  • Aurelius Carus (282-283)
    • another good Illyrian General
    • died in Persia from a lightning bolt (or possibly the dagger of his Praetorian Prefect)
  • Numerianus (283-284)
    • Son of Carus
    • had many vices (swam in cold water, and in bathes of apples and melons, deflowered virgins and officers wives, and took revenge on old childhood friends who were mean to him)
    • stabbed by his own troops in battle
• The Tetrarchy of Diocletian
  • Diocletian (284-305)
    • Diocletian rules jointly with Maximian
    • Tetrarchy: "The rule of four men" (important)
      • Empire divided officially into East and West Empires
      • joint rule of 2 Augusti(Diocletian (east) , Maximian (west))
      • 2 Caesars (Galerius, Constantius) they are the second in command
      • provinces regrouped into prefectures and dioceses (under vicar)
      • now grow from 50 to 100+ provinces
    • Emperor worshipped like god
    • A mystique starts forming around the Emperor. They become secluded amd mystical
    • Persecution of Christians. Emperors think they are the only god.
    • Economy: real gold ("Solidus") and silver coins
      • Edict on Maximum Prices
      • occupations begin to become hereditary, the theory is that we will likely need X number of farmers each generation
      • annual taxes vs sporadic
    • Rome no longer a major city (capital & mint travel with the Emperor)
    • Legions grow in number from 39 to 65. More but smaller
      • Fast, mobile units
      • legions drop in size from 5,500 to 1,000
      • more cavalry, mobility and missile troops
      • more barbarians and mercenaries hired
      • money in lieu of enlistment in army
      • "Dukes" and "Counts" control/defend territories
      • The makings of the middle ages
      • all very expensive
    • May 1st, 305 abdicates and retires to his fortress palace at Split on the Adriatic
      • spent the rest of his days weeding turnips and cabbages in his garden
      • died in his bed in 313 AD
  • End of the Tetrarchy
    • Tetrarchy breaks down when Constantine (Caesar of the West) proclaimed emperor
    • Civil War of 306-324 AD results in the deaths of the Tetrarchs and claimants to the throne . 18 year civil war
      • Galerius (plague crotch leprosy?)
      • Maxentius (drown in Tiber)
      • Maximinus Daia (plague/poison self?)
      • Licinius (executed for treason)
      • Maximian (hanged himself?)
• Constantine & Theodosius
  • Constantine I , The Great
    • Rules jointly with Licinius, Augustus of the East (until 324)
    • Battle of Milvian Bridge 312 AD
      • "IN HOC SIGNO VINCAS" look this up!
      • the first Christian Emperor!
      • Edict of Milan (313) legalizes Christianity
      • Council of Nicaea (325): bishops assemble
      • Christians appointed to high positions
      • some privileges taken from pagan cults
      • kept the bishop with him all the time to be baptised, etc before he dies
    • "New Rome" at Byzantium (renamed Constantinople) in 324 (currently Istanbul)
    • Stole sculpture and took it there
    • 326 AD death of son Crispus and second wife Fausta
    • Military reforms carried out
      • more armoured cavalry
      • troops moved back into mobile reserves
      • barbarians enrolled
      • occupations tattooed on people!
      • growth of guilds, to teach people to do these skills. You gotta take over for the folks. Attempt to improve the quality
    • Baptized on his deathbed!
    • On his death, his three sons, Constans, Constantius and Constantine II (all by Fausta) ruled the Empire until 360
    • In Diocletian & Constantine, we see the birth of the Middle Ages
  • Julian the Apostate (360-63)
    • Tried to re-introduce "Patriotic Paganism" and Ares (the God of War) into Roman worship in opposition to Christianity (failed)
    • Hit in the groin with a javelin in Persia
      • dieing words "Take your fill, Nazarene!"
    • Valentinian and Valens (364-378)
      • war with Goths
  • Theodosius I, The Great (379-395)
    • Last Emperor to rule a united Empire
    • Officially made Christianity the religion of Rome
    • Empire officially Christian - all paganism banned
    • Lets Goths settle within the Empire - Germaization of the Roman army
    • On his death, Empire is partitioned (East and West)
• The Barbarian Migrations
  • • Nations on the march - lesser tribes combine in the 1-3rd centuries and create "super tribes"
    • Collectively "finish off" a decaying Empire
    • Jutes, Angles & Saxons invade Britain
    • Franks & Burgundians invade Gaul (AXE Warriors)& Germany
    • Ostrogoths (East Goths) invade Crimea, Turkey & Greece
    • Visigoths (West Goths) invade Italy and Spain (horses)
    • Vandals invade Italy Spain & North Africa
    • Huns drive all before them - attack Eastern Empire, Italy & Gaul (horses, shaggy pony)
  • The Decline of the West
    • 409 AD Rome pulls her troops out of Britain to defend Gaul
      • beginning of Arthurian legends? (King Arthur)
    • 410 Goths sack Rome
    • 450's Attila the Hun ravages Italy
      • Battle of Chalons (451 AD) defeats Attila the Hun. Allies with Attilas enemies
      • Death of Attila (453 AD)
  • The Last Caesar
    • Vandals seize Africa and sack Rome in 455 AD
    • 476 Romulus Augustulus (last emperor)
      • ruled for eleven months
      • only 14 years old
      • captured by a mutinous Roman (German!) army
      • given the choice of death, or to abdicate and go into comfortable retirement on the Bay of Naples, with an annual pension of six thousand gold pieces.
    • Replaced by a German "barbarian" king, Odoacer
      • The first barbarian emperor
      • begins the "Dark Ages" in the West. This is the break
• Did Rome "Fall" or "Evolve"?
  • Why did Rome fall? ("Multiple Causation Theory")
    • Was it too old and corrupt to service?
    • Did plagues too greatly reduce the population to sustain itself?
    • Did civil wars weaken the Empire and leave it vulnerable to foreign invasion?
    • Did the army’s lack of discipline make it an enemy within the Empire itself?
    • Were the Romans become too decadent to hold the Empire together?
    • Did the Imperial Civil Service/bureaucracy become too top heavy and inefficient, eventually causing the empire to collapse upon itself?
    • Did the Roman Patrician class become too sterile (plague, disease, in-breeding, lead poisoning) to produce outstanding leaders?
    • Did Christianity create a population more concerned with Heaven and not Earth?
    • Did it fall as the result of barbarian invasions?
    • Did the empire spend too much of its resources on the poor, thus drawing away precious funds from the empire?
    • Was the Roman Empire just too big, making a collapse inevitable?
  • The Survival of Rome in the East... or did it evolve?
  • Byzantine (Eastern Roman) Empire, based at Constantinople, survives
    • called selves "Romans"
    • because they were the only ones left un-conquered
    • lasts until 1453 (falls to Turks)
• THE ROMAN LEGACY
  • 4th – 7th centuries
    • Collapse of Western Roman Empire leads to Dark Ages
      • former Roman provinces in hands of rival barbarian groups
      • settle and become "civilized" by copying Roman styles (become "Dukes" & "Counts")
      • Germanic Warlords wish to be seen as Kings, so create law codes/coins under Roman influence
      • Churchmen provide literate scribes to illiterate kings
      • monasteries preserve the "wisdom of the ancients"
      • decline of education, e.g. Pope Gregory illiterate
      • Roma Aeterna (eternal Rome) praised by late Latin poets
      • "ideal" of Rome continues through the ages
  • 8th – 10th centuries
    • Rise of Islam: conquest of Africa, Spain
    • Latin replaced by German, Romance languages, Arabic
    • 8th c.: pilgrims seek books in Rome
    • Medieval scholarship based on Latin texts and classical literature (Trivium & Quadrivium)
      • texts copied by monks, thus survives the Dark Ages
      • monasteries foster Latin as the universal language of the Church, Court and educated society
    • Carolingian Franks copy Roman styles in clothing, architecture
      • 800 AD "Roman emperor" Charlemagne (Charles the Great) crowned Holy Roman Emperor, by the Pope, on Christmas Day
      • revives Latin learning at his court
  • 9th - 13th centuries
    • 9-10th centuries Vikings overrun much of western Europe
      • Christian scholars flee to islands off Ireland and Scotland
    • European "kings" develop "kingdoms" along old Roman Provincial borders in order to protect themselves from the Vikings, and each other
    • 1070 Justinian’s Code rediscovered in the West (Bologna) and becomes basis of law
    • Pope gains great power and calls (many!) Crusades
      • "Christendom" becomes the new Roman Empire
  • 14th – 16th centuries
    • "lost" works rediscovered in monasteries
      • rebirth of classical culture, art, architecture, styles
      • Renaissance, reaches height in 15th century
      • printing press makes Latin literature widely accessible
  • THE ROMAN LEGACY - 19th & 20th Centuries
    • 1837 – 1901 Reign of Queen Victoria
      • Victorian England copies much of Roman culture
      • heirs of the Roman Empire
    • 20th century
      • Church Latin is universal until the 1960’s
      • switch to Vulgate
  • Roman Survival
    • Imperial boundaries
    • Pontifex Maximus / Pope
    • Roman numerals
    • Latin language
    • Julian calendar / Months / Days (names)
    • Alphabet
    • Legal system
    • Coinage
    • English vocabulary
    • Imperialism
    • Literary tradition
    • Technology
    • Town planning
    • Christianity